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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Reverse gateways? Frequent cannabis use as a predictor of tobacco initiation and nicotine dependence (2005)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 100 (2005), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims  To examine the risk posed by cannabis use in young people for tobacco use disorders. Specifically we examined whether cannabis use in non-smokers predicted later initiation of tobacco use and whether cannabis use predicted later nicotine dependence in tobacco users.Design  A 10-year eight-wave cohort study.Setting  State of Victoria, Australia.Participants  A community sample of 1943 participants initially aged 14–15 years.Measurements  Self-report of tobacco and cannabis use was assessed in the teens using a computerized interview assessment and in young adulthood with a CATI assessment. The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence was used to define nicotine dependence.Findings  For teen non-smokers, at least one report of weekly cannabis use in the teens predicted a more than eightfold increase in the odds of later initiation of tobacco use (OR 8.3; 95% CI 1.9–36). For 21-year-old smokers, not yet nicotine-dependent, daily cannabis use raised the odds of nicotine dependence at the  age  of  24 years  more  than  threefold  (OR  3.6,  1.2,  10)  after  controlling  for possible confounders, including level of tobacco use and subsyndromal signs of nicotine dependence.Conclusions  Weekly or more cannabis use during the teens and young adulthood is associated with an increased risk of late initiation of tobacco use and progression to nicotine dependence. If this effect is causal, it may be that a heightened risk of nicotine dependence is the most important health consequence of early frequent cannabis use.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01220.x
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use among Australians: a comparison of their associations with other drug use and use disorders, affective and anxiety disorders, and psychosis (2001)
    Oxford, UK : Carfax Publishing, part of the Taylor & Francis Group
    Addiction 96 (2001), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim. To compare relationships between alcohol, cannabis and tobacco and indicators of mental health problems in the general population. 
Method. A survey of a nationally representative sample of 10 641 Australian adults (the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being (NSMHWB)) provided data on alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use and mental health (DSM-IV anxiety disorders, affective disorders, other substance use disorders and screening positively for psychosis). 
Findings. Alcohol showed a "J-shaped" relationship with DSM-IV affective and anxiety disorders: alcohol users had lower rates of these problems than non-users of alcohol, while those meeting criteria for alcohol dependence had the highest rates. Tobacco and cannabis use were both associated with increased rates of all mental health problems examined. However, after controlling for demographics, neuroticism and other drug use, cannabis was not associated with anxiety or affective disorders. Alcohol dependence and tobacco use remained associated with both of these indicators of mental health. All three types of drug use were associated with higher rates of other substance use problems, with cannabis having the strongest association. 
Conclusions. The use of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis are associated with different patterns of co-morbidity in the general population.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961116037.x
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alcohol misuse and juvenile offending in adolescence: a response to the commentaries (1996)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 91 (1996), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1996.tb02308.x
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Health service utilization and benzodiazepine use among heroin users: findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS) (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims  To determine levels of health service utilization among heroin users, the types of prescription drugs obtained by heroin users and the contribution of benzodiazepine use in health service utilization and prescribed drug use.Design  Cross-sectional survey.Setting  Sydney, Australia.Participants  A total of 615 current heroin users recruited for the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS).Findings  Sixty per cent of subjects had consulted a general practitioner (GP) and 7% a specialist in the preceding month. An ambulance had attended 11% of subjects in the preceding month. Forty-eight per cent of subjects had prescriptions dispensed for medication in the preceding month. Thirty-nine per cent of participants had prescriptions dispensed for psychotropic medications, representing 80% of all prescriptions. Twenty per cent of subjects had prescriptions dispensed for non-psychotropic medications (20% of prescriptions). The most commonly prescribed drugs were benzodiazepines (59% of prescriptions), which had been obtained by 30% of subjects. Benzodiazepine users had more GP and psychiatrist visits, were more likely to have had an ambulance attendance and had significantly more dispensed prescriptions.Conclusions  There were high levels of health utilization among heroin users. Prescription drug use was common, and dominated by psychotropic drugs. Benzodiazepine use was a dominant factor in the use of services and in prescriptions dispensed. Despite increased awareness of the harms associated with benzodiazepines, they continue to be prescribed widely to heroin users.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00430.x
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alcohol misuse and juvenile offending in adolescence (1996)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 91 (1996), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: The associations between alcohol misuse and juvenile offending during the period from 15 to 16 years of age were studied in a birth cohort of New Zealand adolescents. This analysis showed that young people who misused alcohol had significantly (p 〈 0.001) higher rates of both violent and property offences. These associations were similar for males and females. Further analysis suggested that a substantial component of the association between alcohol misuse and juvenile offending arose from shared risk factors that were common to both outcomes. These risk factors included measures of family social background, family and parental characteristics, individual characteristics and adolescent peer affiliations. After adjustment for antecedent risk factors there was no significant association between alcohol misuse and odds of property offences. However, young people who abused alcohol had odds of violent offending that were 3.2 times (p 〈 0.001) the odds of those offences for young people who did not misuse alcohol. It is concluded: (a) that a large component of the association between alcohol misuse and juvenile offending arises because of the effects of shared risk factors that are associated with both outcomes; (b) none the less, the unexplained association between alcohol misuse and violent offending may suggest the presence of a direct cause and effect association in which adolescent alcohol misuse is associated with increased risks of violent offending.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1996.9144834.x
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The role of peer affiliations, social, family and individual factors in continuities in cigarette smoking between childhood and adolescence (1995)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 90 (1995), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: The continuity between early smoking experimentation and smoking at age 16 years was analysed for a birth cohort of New Zealand children. This analysis suggested that when due allowance was made for errors in reports of smoking behaviours, there was evidence of relatively strong continuity (r= 0.60) between early smoking experimentation and cigarette smoking at age 16 years. Further analysis suggested that the continuities between early smoking experimentation and later smoking arose from three pathways that linked early smoking experimentation to later smoking. First there was evidence to suggest that children who engaged in early smoking experimentation tended to affiliate with adolescent peer groups whose members smoked. In turn, these peer group affiliations reinforced pre-existing tendencies to cigarette smoking. Secondly, a small component of the apparent continuity between early smoking experimentation and later smoking arose because of common social, individual and contextual factors that were associated with both smoking experimentation and later smoking. Finally, there was evidence of moderate direct continuity in cigarette smoking behaviour over time. The implications of these findings for the development of smoking prevention programmes are discussed and it is concluded that effective programmes need to be embedded in a developmental approach which attempts to reduce both early smoking experimentation and the effects of peer pressure in adolescence on the development of cigarette smoking.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1995.9056476.x
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Childhood exposure to alcohol and adolescent drinking patterns (1994)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 89 (1994), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: This paper examines the relationships between age at first exposure to alcohol and Jour measures of drinking behaviour (frequency of drinking, typical and most amount consumed, alcohol- related problems) at age 15 years in a birth cohort of New Zealand children. There were small but consistent correlations (r=− 0.10 to − 0.16) between self-reported age at first exposure to alcohol and the four measures of alcohol consumption. These associations remained statistically significant (p〈0.05) after control for a wide range of potentially confounding covariates including measures of family socio-demographic background, parental alcohol use and attitudes to alcohol use and early childhood behaviour. After control for these factors, children who had been introduced to alcohol before the age of 6 yean were 1.9 to 2.4 times more likely to report frequent, heavy or problem drinking at age 15 years than children who did not drink alcohol before the age of 13. It is concluded that young people reared in home environments that have permissive attitudes to alcohol use and who are introduced to alcohol at an earlier age may be more vulnerable to alcohol-related problems in adolescence.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03360.x
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The prevalence and risk factors associated with abusive or hazardous alcohol consumption in 16-year-olds (1995)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 90 (1995), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: This paper examines the prevalence of abusive or hazardous alcohol consumption at age 16 years and the risk factors associated with such behaviour using data from a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 953 children. Drinking behaviour was assessed on the basis of self-report measures of the frequency of alcohol consumption, reports of the typical and largest amounts of alcohol consumed and the frequency of alcohol-related problems. These measures were combined using latent class analysis methods to identify a group of adolescents (9.3% of the sample) who were characterized by high levels of abusive or hazardous drinking behaviour. Analysis of the risk factors associated with abusive/hazardous drinking identified three factors which were predictive of this behaviour at age 16 years: gender (p 〈 0.001); the largest amount of alcohol consumed at age 14 years (p 〈 0.05); and the extent of affiliation with substance using peers (p 〈 0.001). Further analysis suggested that the effects of other social, familial and individual risk factors on alcohol abuse were mediated via their effect on early drinking behaviour or via their influences on peer affiliations in adolescence. A tentative model of the pathways to adolescent alcohol abuse is discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1995.9079356.x
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  • 19
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The effect of parental alcohol problems on rates of adolescent psychiatric disorders (1994)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Addiction 89 (1994), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: The relationships between parental alcohol problems and risks of psychiatric disorders including substance abuse, conduct, attention deficit, mood and anxiety disorders were examined in a birth cohort of New Zealand children studied to the age of 15 years. This analysis showed that children exposed to alcoholic parents had risks of adolescent psychiatric disorders that were between 2.2 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.4; 3.3) to 3.9 (95% CI=2.40; 6.0) times higher than children whose parents did not report alcohol problems. After adjustment for a range of confounding factors these associations tended to reduce but even after adjustment, children of alcoholic parents had rates of disorder that were between 1.6 (95% CI = 1.1; 2.6) to 3.0 (95% CI= 1.8; 4.5) times higher than the offspring of parents who did not have alcohol problems. The analysis suggested approximately linear relationships between the extent of reported parental alcohol problems and risks of disorder. There was no evidence to suggest that, in general, males responded to parental alcohol problems in a way that differed from the response of females.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03306.x
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  To examine the evidence on the association between cannabis and depression and evaluate competing explanations of the association.Methods  A search of Medline, Psychinfo and EMBASE databases was conducted. All references in which the terms ‘cannabis’, ‘marijuana’ or ‘cannabinoid’, and in which the words ‘depression/depressive disorder/depressed’, ‘mood’, ‘mood disorder’ or ‘dysthymia’ were collected. Only research studies were reviewed. Case reports are not discussed.Results  There was a modest association between heavy or problematic cannabis use and depression in cohort studies and well-designed cross-sectional studies in the general population. Little evidence was found for an association between depression and infrequent cannabis use. A number of studies found a modest association between early-onset, regular cannabis use and later depression, which persisted after controlling for potential confounding variables. There was little evidence of an increased risk of later cannabis use among people with depression and hence little support for the self-medication hypothesis. There have been a limited number of studies that have controlled for potential confounding variables in the association between heavy cannabis use and depression. These have found that the risk is much reduced by statistical control but a modest relationship remains.Conclusions  Heavy cannabis use and depression are associated and evidence from longitudinal studies suggests that heavy cannabis use may increase depressive symptoms among some users. It is still too early, however, to rule out the hypothesis that the association is due to common social, family and contextual factors that increase risks of both heavy cannabis use and depression. Longitudinal studies and studies of twins discordant for heavy cannabis use and depression are needed to rule out common causes. If the relationship is causal, then on current patterns of cannabis use in the most developed societies cannabis use makes, at most, a modest contribution to the population prevalence of depression.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00437.x
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