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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Folk physiology and talking hyoids (1989)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 342 (1989), S. 486-486 
    Details
    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] SIR-In the past it was generally believed that human speech derived solely from properties of the brain and that no special vocal anatomy was involved. Although much has changed, Marshall, as is evident from his recent News and Views article1, has failed to follow this progress. The issue in ...
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/342486a0
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Specializations of the human upper respiratory and upper digestive systems as seen through comparative and developmental anatomy (1993)
    Springer
    Dysphagia 8 (1993), S. 318-325 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-0460
    Keywords: Larynx ; Pharynx ; Upper respiratory, digestive tract ; Aerodigestive tract ; Evolution ; Comparative anatomy ; Deglutition ; Deglutition disorders
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The human upper respiratory, or aerodigestive, tract serves as the crossroads of our breathing, swallowing and vocalizing pathways. Accordingly, developmental or evolutionary change in any of these functions will, of necessity, affect the others. Our studies have shown that the position in the neck of the mammalian larynx is a major factor in determining function in this region. Most mammals, such as our closest relatives the nonhuman primates, exhibit a larynx positioned high in the neck. This permits an intranarial larynx to be present and creates largely separate respiratory and digestive routes. While infant humans retain this basic mammalian pattern, developmental descent of the larynx considerably alters this configuration. Adult humans have, accordingly, lost separation of the respiratory and digestive routes, but have gained an increased supralaryngeal region of the pharynx which allows for the production of the varied sounds of human speech. How this region has changed during human evolution has been difficult to assess due to the absence of preserved soft-tissue structures. Our studies have shown that the relationship between basicranial shape and laryngeal position in living mammals can be a valuable guide to reconstruct the region in ancestral humans. Based on these findings we have examined the basicrania of fossil ancestors—from over two million years ago to near recent times—and have reconstructed the position of the larynx and pharyngeal region in these early forms. This has allowed us insight into how our ancestors may have breathed and swallowed, and when the anatomy necessary for human speech evolved.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01321770
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Anatomy of the hyoid apparatus in odontoceli (toothed whales): Specializations of their skeleton and musculature compared with those of terrestrial mammals (1994)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    The @Anatomical Record 240 (1994), S. 598-624 
    Details
    ISSN: 0003-276X
    Keywords: Hyoid ; Cetacean ; Odontocete ; Larynx ; Comparative anatomy ; Swallowing ; Sound production ; Suction feeding ; Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Background: The hyoid apparatus of odontocetes (toothed whales) serves as a major attachment point for many of the muscles and ligaments subserving breathing, swallowing, and sound production.Methods: This study examines the hyoid apparatus in 48 specimens of ten odontocete genera (Phocoena, Lagenorhynchus, Stenella, Delphinus, Tursiops, Grampus, Globicephala, Mesoplodon, Physeter, and Kogia) collected post mortem from beach strandings.Results: The odontocete hyoid apparatus, as that of their closest terrestrial relatives, the artiodactyls, is divisible into a basal portion (bashyal, paired thyrohyals) and a suspensory portion (paired ceratohyals, epihyals, stylohyals, and tympanohyals) connecting the basal portion to the skull base. Unlike other terrestrial mammals, the basal portion lies inferior to the laryngeal aditus, is flattened dorso-ventrally, and is relatively large, thus providing a broad surface area for muscle attachments. The suspensory elements are not as flattened and are joined by synovial joints (except for epihyal-stylohyal fusion). Muscular specializations include enlargement of those which retract the hyoid apparatus (e.g., sternohyoid) or control the tongue (e.g., styloglossus, hyoglossus). These muscles may be particularly important in a specialized prey capture behavior called suction feeding. In addition, the hyoid apparatus has a tilted placement, which allows asymmetrical enlargement of the piriform sinuses. Asymmetry is also seen in the muscular attachment between the larynx and the hyoid apparatus. The most pronounced differences from the basic pattern are observed in two families: Physeteridae and Ziphiidae.Conclusions: The derived position and shape of the odontocete hyoid apparatus may have evolved to subserve several specialized upper respiratory/digestive tract functions, such as simultaneous feeding (suction and swallowing) and sound production. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
    Additional Material: 11 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092400417
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Position of the larynx in odontoceti (toothed whales) (1987)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    The @Anatomical Record 218 (1987), S. 98-106 
    Details
    ISSN: 0003-276X
    Keywords: Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: This study examines the positional relationships of the odontocete (toothed whale) larynx to further an understanding of their breathing, swallowing, and vocalizing abilities. Seventeen specimens representing nine cetacean genera (Delphinus, Stenella, Tursiops, Grampus, Delphinapterus, Globicephala, Kogia, Mesoplodon, and Phocoena) were studied post mortem. Nine specimens were sectioned in the midsagittal plane and the position of the larynx relative to vertebral levels, skull base, and palatal structures was recorded. In eight specimens that could not be bisected for reasons of large size or condition of preservation, the larynx was removed by a ventral approach for further dissection. The results show that the upper respiratory tract of the odontocetes has evolved away from a basic mammalian pattern. Laryngeal position among terrestrial mammals usually corresponds to the level of cervical vertebrae 1-3. The odontocete larynx, however, lies rostral to the level of the atlas and extends to the presphenoidal synchondrosis. Its extension above the level of the foramen magnum is due to three factors: (1) The larynx is elongated into a tubular extension that projects beyond the soft palate into the nasopharynx; (2) the neck region is shortened owing to the highly compressed cervical vertebrae; and (3) the skull base is oriented in the same direction as the cervical vertebrae because of the horizontal and fusiform alignment of the head and thorax. Whereas the larynx of most terrestrial mammals is separable from the nasopharynx, that of the odontocetes studied may be permanently intranarial, held in place by the palatopharyngeal sphincter. Laryngeal position may affect their vocal abilities, allowing odontocetes to simultaneously swallow and echolocate.
    Additional Material: 3 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092180115
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Existence of vocal folds in the larynx of odontoceti (toothed whales) (1988)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    The @Anatomical Record 221 (1988), S. 884-891 
    Details
    ISSN: 0003-276X
    Keywords: Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Odontocetes (toothed whales) vocalize for communication and echolocation. The mechanisms of sound production, however, remain unclear. Their larynx has long been thought to lack vocal folds and, thus, was considered incapable of generating sounds. This study investigates internal anatomy of the odontocete larynx to: 1) describe the morphology of any fold found, 2) determine any structural homologies between these folds and the vocal folds of terrestrial mammals, and 3) assess their possible function in sound production. Larynges of 24 odontocetes representin ten genera (Delphinus, Stenella, Lagenorhynchus, Tursiops, Grampus, Delphinapterus, Globicephala, Kogia, Mesoplodon, and Phocoena) were studied post mortem. Nine specimens were cut midsagittally, and the remainder were dorsally opened to reveal internal anatomy. Results show that, contrary to established belief, vocal folds are consistently present. They are not isolated bands or “cords” but appear continuous with the internal laryngeal membrane. The attachments of these folds are the same as in terrestrial mammals, thus indicating homology with true mammalian vocal folds. These folds extend from the midline of the thyroid cartilage to the base of the arytenoid cartilages, sometimes to a discrete process. The vocal folds are elongated and oriented in a vertical plane, parallel to airflow direction. Vocal fold morphology varies, appearing as true bifurcated structures, a trifurcated fold, or a single midline fold. Laryngeal ventricles and vestibular folds are also consistently found lateral to the vocal folds. The vocal folds may divide the airstream within the into three separate air currents. Fold vibrations may produce initial laryngeal sounds used in echolocation or communication.
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092210413
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Ultrasound investigation of fetal human upper respiratory anatomy (1990)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    The @Anatomical Record 227 (1990), S. 363-372 
    Details
    ISSN: 0003-276X
    Keywords: Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Although the human upper respiratory - upper digestive tract is an area of vital importance, relatively little is known about either the structural or functional changes that occur in the region during the fetal period. While investigations in our laboratory have begun to chart these changes through the use of postmortem materials, in vivo studies have been rarely attempted. This study combines ultrasonography with new applications of video editing to examine aspects of prenatal upper respiratory development.Structures of the fetal upper respiratory - digestive tract and their movements were studied through the use of ultrasonography, and detailed frame-by-frame analysis. Twenty-five living fetuses, aged 18-36 weeks gestation, were studied in utero during routine diagnostic ultrasound examination. These real-time linear array sonograms were videotaped during each study. Videotapes were next analyzed for anatomical structures and movement patterns, played back through the ultrasound machine in normal speed, and then examined with a frame-by-frame video editor (FFVE) to identify structures and movements. Still images were photographed directly from the video monitor using a 35 mm camera.Results show that upper respiratory and digestive structures, as well as their movements, could be seen clearly during normal speed and repeat fram-by-frame analysis. Major structures that could be identified in the majority of subjects included trachea in 20 of 25 fetuses (80%); larynx, 76%; pharynx, 76%. Smaller structures were more variable, but were nevertheless observed on both sagittal and coronal section: piriform sinuses, 76%; thyroid cartilage, 36%; cricoid cartilage, 32%; and epiglottis, 16%. Movements of structures could also be seen and were those typically observed in connection with swallowing: fluttering tongue movements, changes in pharyngeal shape, and passage of a bolus via the piriform sinuses to esophagus. Fetal swallows had minimal laryngeal motion. This study represents the first time that the appearance of upper airway and digestive tract structures have been quantified in conjunction with their movemements in the living fetus.
    Additional Material: 4 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092270312
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effect of basicranial flexion on larynx and hyoid position in rats: An experimental study of skull and soft tissue interactions (1991)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    The @Anatomical Record 230 (1991), S. 557-569 
    Details
    ISSN: 0003-276X
    Keywords: Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: The mammalian upper respiratory tract is a functionally dynamic region involved in respiration, deglutition, and phonation. As the structures of this area (e.g., larynx, hyoid) are suspended from the basicranium, changes in basicranial shape may affect both their anatomy and function. Although skeletal/ soft tissue relationships have been examined through descriptive, comparative anatomy, these relationships have remained largely unexplored via experimental study. In this study, mechanical relationships between basicranial shape and positions of the larynx and hyoid bone are investigated experimentally. Skull base flexion was induced by surgically ablating the spheno-occipital synchondrosis in 13-day-old rats. Lateral radiograms were taken at 40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 days, and angular measurements made of basicranial shape and positions of the larynx and hyoid bone. Statistical analysis shows significant differences between experimental and control groups for skull base, hyoid, and larynx angles, and negative (inverse) correlations for basicranial shape change vs. hyoid position, and basicranial shape change vs. larynx position. Results show induced basicranial flexion caused inferior displacement of the larynx and hyoid bone, thus indicating a direct, mechanical relationship between skeletal and soft tissues. These observations may aid in understanding the basic biological, pathological, and evolutionary interactions of hard and soft tissues of the upper respiratory region.
    Additional Material: 5 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092300416
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Developmental change in a basicranial line and its relationship to the upper respiratory system in living primatesThis research was supported by the Crippled Childrens Aid Society, New Haven, Connecticut. (1978)
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    American Journal of Anatomy 152 (1978), S. 467-482 
    Details
    ISSN: 0002-9106
    Keywords: Life and Medical Sciences ; Cell & Developmental Biology
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: This study investigated the relationship between alterations in a basicranial line and changes in the upper respiratory system of selected non-human primates and of man. This was done through multivariate analysis of craniometric measurements which describe midline exocranial flexion, and compares the analytical results with previous postmortem findings on upper respiratory structure and function.Craniometric analysis has shown that the skulls of the non-human primate species studied and those of newborn human infants are relatively non-flexed exocranially between the posterior border of the hard palate and foramen magnum. This finding corresponds to the relatively high position of their upper respiratory structures. In this group the tongue lies entirely within the oral cavity, and the epiglottis is found intranarial.After approximately the second year, humans exhibit marked exocranial flexion between the hard palate and foramen magnum. These basicranial changes coincide with concomitant changes occurring in the positional relationships of the upper respiratory system. After the second year the tongue and larynx have descended considerably into the neck, greatly altering their functional relationships.There thus appears to be a relationship between the exocranial orientation of the basicranium and the positioning of upper respiratory structures. There also appears to be a direct structural, and possible functional, relationship between (1) the position of the larynx, (2) the orientation of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles, and (3) the orientation of the basiocciput.
    Additional Material: 13 Ill.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aja.1001520403
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