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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Skeletal muscle fibre size adaptation to an eight-week swimming programme (1980)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 44 (1980), S. 161-165 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Swimming training ; Triceps brachii muscle ; Muscle fibre size ; Fibre types
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary To evaluate the effects of short-term physical training on muscle fibre size, seven males were submitted to an eight-week swimming programme. Biopsy samples from the triceps brachii muscle were obtained before and after the training period, and compared with controls. After training, free swimming maximal oxygen uptake was significantly higher in the exercised subjects (3.61 to 3.76 l·min−1), whereas the type I fibre distribution in the triceps was not affected (45.5 vs 44.6%). However, a significant increase in type II fibre area was observed (23.8%) and the type II/type I fibre area ratio increased from 1.63 to 1.83 with training. Muscle succinate dehydrogenase and phosphofructokinase activities were not significantly affected by the training programme. No significant changes were observed in the control group. It is concluded that type II fibres are recruited preferentially during a short-term swim-training programme.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00421094
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Blood metabolites during prolonged exercise in swimming and leg cycling (1982)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 48 (1982), S. 127-133 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Swimming ; Lactate ; Pyruvate ; Glycerol ; Free fatty acids
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary This study was designed to compare the influence of two modes of exercise (swimming and leg cycling) on the blood concentrations of metabolic substrates and metabolites during a 45-min exercise period. Eight college students (mean age=21.6±1.2 year) exercised at 70% of $$\dot V$$ O2 max, in water using the front crawl on one occasion, and on a cycle ergometer using the legs on another. Blood samples were drawn at 0,15, 30, and 45 min and analyzed for free fatty acids, glycerol, glucose, pyruvate, and lactate concentrations. Mean oxygen uptakes (2.23 vs 2.12 l·min−1) and heart rates (152 vs 150 b·min−1) for cycling and swimming respectively were not significantly different. Lactate and pyruvate were significantly (p〈0.01) higher during swimming as compared to cycling. Free fatty acids, glycerol, and glucose were not significantly different between the two modes of exercise (p〉0.05). Assuming venous blood concentrations provide some indication of metabolic events, these data are compatible with a tendency to a higher relative carbohydrate oxidation rate during swimming as compared to cycling during prolonged exercise at the same relative work intensities.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00421172
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Metabolic and hormonal responses of elite swimmers during a regular training session (1983)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 50 (1983), S. 173-177 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Swimming ; Hormones ; Lactate ; Epinephrine ; Metabolism
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary Metabolic and hormonal measures of eight elite swimmers were taken at rest and during a regular training session after a prolonged bout of swimming (4560±68 m) at moderate intensity (MI) and after medium duration-high intensity (HI) swimming exercise (1471±157 m). MI and HI swims were respectively associated with significant increases in free fatty acids (0.4 at rest to 0.8 and 0.67 Μeq·ml−1) glycerol (0.1 to 0.26 and 0.25 mmol·l−1), growth hormone (14 to 65 and 51 ng·ml−1) and norepinephrine (0.5 to 3.9 and 4.1 ng·ml−1). HI contrary to MI swimming was also associated with a significant (p〈0.01) increase in blood lactate (1.5 to 8.8 mmol·l−1) and epinephrine (0.13 to 0.71 ng·ml−1) concentrations. Glucose, insulin, glucagon, and cortisol concentrations were not changed during the training session. It is concluded that a regular training session in elite swimmers is associated with an increase in lipid utilization, and a modest change in some of the hormones directly involved in the regulation of blood glucose level.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00422156
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of a 24-h carbohydrate-poor diet on metabolic and hormonal responses during prolonged glucose-infused leg exercise (1985)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 54 (1985), S. 420-426 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Glycemia ; Glucose infusion ; Diet ; Free fatty acids ; Insulin ; Exercise in humans
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary Extant literature dealing with metabolic and hormonal adaptations to exercise following carbohydrate (CHO) reduced diets is not sufficiently precise to allow researchers to partial out the effects of reduced blood glucose levels from other general effects produced by low CHO diets. In order to shed light on this issue, a study was conducted to examine the effects of a 24-h CHO-poor diet on substrate and endocrine responses during prolonged (75 min; 60% $$\dot V_{O_{2max} } $$ ) glucose-infused leg exercise. Eight subjects exercised on a cycle ergometer in the two following conditions: 1) after a normal diet (CHON), and 2) after a 24-h low CHO diet (CHOL). In both conditions, glucose was constantly infused intravenously (2.2 mg · kg−1 · min−1) from the 10th to the 75th min of exercise in relatively small amounts (10.4±0.8 g). No significant differences in blood glucose concentrations were found between the two conditions at rest and during exercise although a significant increase (p〈0.01) in glucose level was observed in both conditions after 40 min of exercise. The CHOL as compared to the CHON condition, was associated with significantly (p〈0.05) lower resting concentrations of insulin, muscle glycogen (8.7 vs 10.6 g · kg−1), and triacylglycerol, and greater concentrations of Β-hydroxybutyrate (0.5 vs 0.2 mmol · L−1), and free fatty acids. During exercise, the CHOL condition as compared to the CHON condition, was associated with significantly (p〈0.05) lower insulin and R values, as well as greater free fatty acid (from min 20 to 60) and epinephrine (min 60 to 75) concentrations. Norepinephrine and glucagon concentrations also showed a net tendency (p〈0.06) to be higher in the CHOL condition. There were no significant differences at rest and during exercise in blood lactate and cortisol concentrations between the two conditions. These results demonstrate that blood glucose is not the sole determinant of the metabolic and hormonal responses during prolonged exercise following a low CHO intake and indicate that other factors may be involved in the regulatory mechanism.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02337188
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of a rapid change in muscle glycogen availability on metabolic and hormonal responses during exercise (1984)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 53 (1984), S. 57-62 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Muscle glycogen ; Time sequence ; Free fatty acids ; Insulin ; Exercise in humans
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary To evaluate the metabolic and hormonal adaptations following a rapid change in muscle glycogen availability, 14 subjects had their muscle glycogen content increased in one leg (IG) and decreased in the other (DG). In group A (n=7), subjects exercised on a bicycle ergometer at 70% maximal oxygen uptake for 20 min using the DG leg. Without resting these same subjects exercised another 20 min using the IG leg. Subjects in group B (n=7) followed the same single-leg exercise protocol but in the reverse order. In order to get some information on the time sequence of these possible adaptations, blood samples were collected at rest and at the beginning and the end of each exercise period (min 5, 20, 25, and 40). Results indicated that 5 min after the switch from the DG leg to the IG leg. transient increases in plasma free fatty acids (1.20 to 1.39 meq·l−1) and serum insulin (10.1 to 12 mU·l−1) concentrations occured. Between minute 25 and 40 of exercise, the DG to IG switch was accompanied by a decrease in free fatty acids and glycerol concentrations as well as an increase in lactate levels. An opposite response was observed in the IG to DG condition during the same time span. Plasma norepinephrine, epinephrine, glucagon, and serum cortisol concentrations were not significantly affected by the leg change. These results suggest a rapid preferential use of muscle glycogen when available and a time lag in the response of the extramuscular substrate mobilization factors.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00964691
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of supranormal liver glycogen content on hyperglucagonemia-induced liver glycogen breakdown (2000)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 83 (2000), S. 328-335 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Key words Insulin ; Liver glycogenolysis ; Hyperglycemia ; Liver biopsies ; Exercise
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that a higher hepatic glycogen level is associated with higher glucagon-induced hepatic glycogen depletion. Four groups of anesthetized rats received three injections (at times 0, 30, and 60 min) of glucagon (intravenously, 20 μg/kg). Among these groups, hepatic glycogen levels had previously been manipulated either by an overloading diet (Fast-refed), a reduction in food intake (1/2-fast), or exercise (75 min of running, 26 m/min, 0% grade). A fourth group had normal hepatic glycogen levels. A fifth group of rats was injected only with saline (0.9% NaCl). Liver glycogen concentrations were measured every 30 min during the course of the 90-min experiment, using liver samples obtained from the open liver biopsy technique. Plasma glucagon concentrations were significantly higher (P 〈 0.05) in the glucagon-injected groups than in the saline-injected group. As expected, liver glycogen levels were significantly higher (P 〈 0.01; 1.6-fold) in the Fast-refed group than in all other groups. Glucagon-induced decreases in liver glycogen concentrations were similar in Fast-refed than in normally fed and exercised rats when the overall 90-min period was considered. However, during the course of the last 30-min period, liver glycogen was significantly (P 〈 0.01) decreased only in the Fast-refed group. The Fast-refed, normally fed, and exercised groups had a similar glucagon-induced hyperglycemia that was significantly more elevated (P 〈 0.01) than glucose levels measured in the saline-injected group. Glucagon-induced reactive hyperinsulinemia was observed only in the Fast-refed and normally fed rats, and not in the exercised and 1/2-fast rats. It is concluded that supranormal levels of liver glycogen may be associated with a larger hyperglucagonemia-induced liver glycogen breakdown.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004210000286
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of dietary manipulations on blood glucose and hormonal responses following supramaximal exercise (1987)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 56 (1987), S. 109-114 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Supramaximal exercise ; Diet ; Blood glucose ; Insulin ; Catecholamines
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary The effects of supramaximal exercise on blood glucose, insulin, and catecholamine responses were examined in 7 healthy male physical education students (mean±SD: age=21±1.2 years; $$\dot V_{{\text{O}}_{{\text{2 max}}} } $$ =54±6 ml · kg−1 · min−1) in response to the following three dietary conditions: 1) a normal mixed diet (N); 2) a 24-h low carbohydrate (CHO) diet intended to reduce liver glycogen content (D1); and 3) a 24-h low CHO diet preceded by a leg muscle CHO overloading protocol intended to reduce hepatic glycogen content with increased muscle glycogen store (D2). Exercise was performed on a bicycle ergometer at an exercise intensity of 130% $$\dot V_{{\text{O}}_{{\text{2 max}}} } $$ for 90 s. Irrespective of the dietary manipulation, supramaximal exercise was associated with a similar significant (p〈0.01) increase in the exercise and recovery plasma glucose values. The increase in blood glucose levels was accompanied by a similar increase in insulin concentrations in all three groups despite lower resting insulin levels in conditions D1 and D2. Lactate concentrations were higher during the early phase of the recovery period in the D2 as compared to the N condition. At cessation of exercise, epinephrine and norepinephrine were greatly elevated in all three conditions. These results indicate that the increase in plasma glucose and insulin associated with very high intensity exercise, persists in spite of dietary manipulations intended to reduce liver glycogen content or increase muscle glycogen store. These data suggest that the blood glucose increase following supramaximal exercise is most likely related to hepatic glycogenolysis in spite of a substantial decrease in liver glycogen content.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00696385
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Analysis of determinants of swimming economy in front crawl (1990)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 61 (1990), S. 88-92 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Antropometric size ; Energy cost ; Buoyancy ; Performance ; Swimming
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between swimming economy, energy cost to move the body per unit distance (CS) at a given velocity (v) and the potential determinants, i.e. performance level, body size, swimming technique and v. A total of 101 males were studied. Three performance levels (A, B, C) were determined, ranging from the slower (A) to the faster times (B, C). At level C and at 1.1 m · s−1, CS 1.1, was reduced by 55% and 25% when compared with levels A and B and when calculated per unit of surface area (SA) and unit of hydrostatic lift (HL). For the whole group of swimmers, CS 1.1 = 21.88 SA-2.15 HL+5.9 (r=0.56, P〈0.01). Among the 101 swimmers, three other groups were selected to evaluate specifically the influence of arm length and swimming technique on Cs, i.e. arm or leg swimmers and sprinters versus long-distance swimmers. CS was significantly (P〈 0.05) lower for long-arm swimmers, arm and long-distance swimmers than for short-arm, leg and sprint swimmers by 12%, SD 3.3%,15%, SD 3.8% and 16.5%, SD 3%, respectively. For all groups, CS increased with v on average by 10% every 0.1 m · s−1. It is concluded that technical ability cannot be interpreted directly from CS. Performance levels, body size, swimming technique and v at which the measurements are obtained must be also taken into account.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00236699
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Energy cost of front-crawl swimming in women (1991)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 63 (1991), S. 12-16 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Anthropometric size ; Energy cost ; Buoyancy ; Performance ; Swimming
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the energy cost of swimming per unit distance (CS) at different velocities (ν) and performance level, body size and swimming technique in women. A total of 58 females swimmers were studied. Three performance levels (A, B, C) were determined, ranging from the slower (A) to the faster (B, C). At level C and at 1.1 m·s−1, Cs,1.1 was reduced by 7% when directly compared to level B. The Cs,1.1 was reduced by 10% when calculated per unit of height (h) and by 37% when calculated per unit ofh and hydrostatic lift (HL). For the whole group of swimmers, the equation regression was Cs, 1.1 = 0.27h −2.38 HL−7.5 (r=0.53,P〈0.01). To evaluate the specific influence of arm length two groups of long- and short-armed swimmers were selected among swimmers of similarh and performance. The Cs was significantly higher (P〈0.05) by 12%, SD 2.2%, for short-armed than for long-armed swimmers. To evaluate the influence of different types of swimming technique, two other groups of similar performance and anthropometric characteristics were selected. The Cs was significantly higher (P〈0.05) by 12%, SD 4.5% for swimmers using for preference their legs rather than their arms. The Cs of the sprinters was 15.7%, SD 2% higher than that of the long-distance swimmers. For all groups, CS increased withv on average by 8% to 11% every 0.1 m · s−1. These findings showed that Cs variations of these women were close to those previously demonstrated for men. The Cs depends on performance level, body size, buoyancy, swimming technique and ν.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00760794
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of supramaximal exercise on blood glucose levels during a subsequent exercise (1991)
    Springer
    European journal of applied physiology 63 (1991), S. 48-51 
    Details
    ISSN: 1439-6327
    Keywords: Insulin ; Hyperglycemia ; Hyperinsulinemia ; Human subjects
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the effects of hyperglycoemia induced by supramaximal exercise on blood glucose homeostasis during submaximal exercise following immediately after. Six men were subjected to three experimental situations; in two of these situations, 3 min of high-intensity exercise (corresponding to 112, SD 1%VO2 max) was immediately followed by either a 60-min period of submaximal exercise (68, SD 2%VO2 max) or a 60-min resting period. In the third situation, subjects performed a 63-min period of submaximal exercise only. There were no significant differences between the heurt rates, oxygen uptakes, and respiratory exchange ratios during the two submaximal exercise bouts (〉 15 min) whether or not preceded by supramaximal exercise. The supramaximal exercise was associated within 10 min of the start increases (P〈0.05) in blood glucose, insulin, and lactate concentrations. This hyperglycemia was more pronounced when subjects continued to exercise submaximally than when they rested (at 7.5 min;P〈0.05). There was a more rapid return to normal exercise blood glucose and insulin values during submaximal exercise compared with rest. The data show that the hyperinsulinemia following supramaximal exercise is corrected in between 10–30 min during submaximal exercise following immediately, suggesting that this exercise combination does not lead to premature hypoglycemia.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00760800
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