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Notes: To determine the use of pathogenic weight-control methods and prevalence of self-reported eating disorders (ED) among female elite athletes and non-athletic controls, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and a self-developed questionnaire were administered to the total population of Norwegian female elite athletes (n=603) and age- and home community-matched controls (n=522). The response rate in both athletes and controls was 86%; 97% of the athletes and 90% of the controls had body mass index (BMI) values within or below the optimal level (20–25). Athletes had a significantly lower mean BMI 20.8 (95% confidence interval (CI), 20.7–20.9) than controls 21.5 (95% CI 21.3–21.7). A similar fraction of the athletes (31%) and controls (27%) were dieting. Most athletes dieted to enhance performance (73%); most controls dieted to improve appearance (83%). Significantly more athletes (11%) than controls (7%) used pathogenic weight-control methods. Athletes competing in aesthetic and endurance sports were the leanest groups, and athletes competing in aesthetics, endurance- and weight-dependent sports most frequently reported the use of the more severe pathogenic weight-control methods. A similar fraction of athletes (22%) and controls (26%) were classified as being at risk of developing ED based on the subscale scores of the EDI. However, a higher fraction of athletes in aesthetics-, endurance-, and weight-dependent sports than athletes in technical sports, ballgames, power sports and non-athletic controls were classified as being at risk of developing ED. In contrast to previous reports, our results demonstrated that a number of athletes also competing in sports where the participants are considered less weight-conscious were using pathogenic weight-control methods (technical 10% and ballgames 8%). A similar percentage of athletes (12%) and controls (11%) actually reported having an ED.

Notes: To determine the self-reported prevalence of menstrual dysfunction in athletes and controls found to be at risk of developing eating disorders (ED) and the factors characterizing and classifying athletes suffering from menstrual dysfunction, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and a self-developed questionnaire were administered to the total population of Norwegian female elite athletes (n=603) and age- and home community-matched controls (n=522). The response rate in both athletes and controls was 86%. Subjects younger than 16 years who had not attained menarche (29 athletes and 14 controls) and subjects taking contraceptive medication (145 athletes and 131 controls) were excluded. Thus, a total of 348 athletes (19.4±4.3 years) and 303 controls (20.6±4.4 years) were analyzed. A high prevalence of athletes (42%) reported menstrual dysfunction; the prevalence of menstrual dysfunction was significantly different between subjects classified as at risk of developing ED (54% and 36%, for athletes and controls, respectively) and subjects found not to be at risk (41% and 23%, respectively). Furthermore, the prevalence of menstrual dysfunction was significantly higher among athletes competing in sports in which leanness and/or a specific weight are considered important (endurance: 62%, aesthetics: 60% and weight-dependent: 50%) than among athletes competing in sports in which these factors are considered less important (technical: 37%, ballgames: 28% and power sports: 22%). Menarchal age, training volume, body mass index (BMI) and EDI score contributed significantly to explaining menstrual dysfunction in athletes (37%). The authors suggest that athletes reporting menstrual dysfunction could be characterized and classified into 2 main groups: first, the athletes who have a predisposed genetically lean body build (low BMI) and a delayed menarche and undertake hard physical training that does not allow them to achieve the “critical” weight for height found necessary for regular cycles. Secondly, the athletes who have normal BMI, experience menarche at the expected time and who become preoccupied with weight and dieting and/or use of pathogenic weight control methods which then, at least in part, may explain the menstrual dysfunction.

Notes: Fifteen healthy males, aged 20–30 years, participated in a double-blind cross-over study on the effect of the beta-2 stimulator salbutamol on erythropoietin concentration and hemoglobin concentration. The treatment period comprised inhalation of salbutamol, 0.8 mg four times daily for 2 weeks. Serum-erythropoietin was essentially unaltered after treatment with salbutamol, 9.5±4.94 IU  ·  l−1 (mean±SD), as compared to both control situation, 9.2±4.50 IU  ·  l−1(mean±SD), and placebo treatment (9.7±4.07 IU  ·  l−1) (mean±SD). The same pattern, no significant changes between control situation and treatment with salbutamol or placebo, also applied to hemoglobin concentration. In conclusion, it is not possible to increase erythropoietin concentration and thereby erytropoiesis by inhalation of high doses of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) approved beta-2 stimulator salbutamol for 2 weeks in healthy young males.

Notes: The aims of this study were to investigate (a) the use of nutritional supplements (NS) (vitamins, minerals, Omega 3, antioxidants, ginseng, amino acids, Creatine and energy supplements) in elite athletes of different international ranking (b) why athletes are using NS, and (c) who recommends the elite athletes to use NS.The total population of elite athletes in Norwegian National Teams (n = 1620, 960 males and 660 females aged 15–39 years) and randomly selected (n = 1681) (916 males and 765 females) controls from the general population, were given a questionnaire including questions about use of nutritional supplements (NS), and from whom athletes had received information about nutrition and recommendations to use NS. The response rate was 76% for male and 92% for female athletes and 75% and 81% for male and female controls, respectively. A similar percentage of female athletes (54%) and controls (52%) reported use of one or more NS, but more male athletes (51%) than male controls (32%) used NS (P 〈 0.001). However, independent of gender, more athletes as compared to controls used minerals (males 26% vs. 8%; females 42% vs. 20%), amino acids (males 12% vs. 4%; females 3% vs. 0), and Creatine (males 12% vs. 2%; females 3% vs. 0). A lower percentage of NS users were observed in the best female athletes (52%) as compared to female athletes with less experience of international competition (73%) (P 〈 0.01). In male athletes, NS use was independent of international ranking (49%−53%). The coach was the main advisor for use of NS for both male (58%) and female athletes (52%). For male and female athletes, the main reason for using NS was that they felt it was needed in addition to their daily intake (56% and 67%, respectively). Forty one percent of the male and 37% of the female athletes using NS felt they were well informed about nutrition in general and NS. However, 8% of the NS users did not know whether the NS they used was doping classified or not. In conclusion: we found that a similar percentage of female elite athletes and controls, but a higher percentage of male elite athletes than controls, reported the use of NS. There was a lower percentage of NS use among the top female athletes, but not the top male athletes as compared to the less successful elite athletes. The coach was the main advisor for NS use both for male and female elite athletes.

Notes: The aims were to examine the percentage of female elite athletes and controls reporting sexual harassment and abuse (SHAB), and whether a higher percentage of female athletes with eating disorders (ED) had experienced SHAB. A questionnaire was administered to the total population of female elite athletes (n = 660) and controls (n = 780) aged 15–39 years. Sexual harassment and abuse were measured through 11 questions, ranging from light to severe SHAB. In addition, questions about dietary-, menstrual- and training-history and the Eating Disorder Inventory were included. The response rate was 88% for athletes and 71% for controls. Athletes (n = 121) and controls (n = 81) classified as “at risk” for ED and non-ED controls participated in a clinical interview. A higher percentage of controls compared with athletes reported experiences of SHAB in general (59% vs. 51%, P 〈 0.001). A lower percentage of athletes had experienced SHAB inside sports than outside sport (28% vs. 39%, P 〈 0.001). A higher percentage of ED athletes than non-ED athletes had experienced SHAB (66% vs. 48%, P 〈 0.01), both inside sport and outside sport. In spite of the fact that a higher percentage of controls compared with athletes had experienced SHAB, it is necessary to formulate clear guidelines, set up educational workshops and implement intervention programs for both ED and SHAB in sport.

Notes: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of weight reduction on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max and running speed in endurance-trained female elite athletes. Seven (the cases) of the 33 subjects reduced a significant amount of body weight (BW) within a period of 2 months. The cases showed a significant decrease in V̇O2max and running speed relative to controls during the weight reduction period (WRP). A considerable loss in BW might have prevented cases from achieving a training-induced increase in V̇O2max and running speed similar to controls during the WRP. Six cases maintained low BW and all 7 improved V̇O2max relative to controls 1 year after the WRP.

Notes: The purpose of this study was to examine nutritional and supplemental habits among international alpine- and cross-country skiers and power sport athletes in Norway. Data from all the athletes of the National alpine skiing team (ALP: n= 33, 19 men and 14 women) and the National cross-country skiing team (CRO: n= 34, 17 men and 17 women) plus a mixed group of power sport athletes (POW: n= 33, all men) from the National Feanis of boxers, weightlifters and track and field athletes, were collected through a semi-structured interview during their annual medical examination. Twenty percent of all the athletes reported unsatisfactory nutritional habits (CRO 6%, ALP 27% and POW 27%: CRO vs. ALP/POW P〈0.05). Eighty-four percent used one or more micronutrient supplement (ALP 70%, POW 88%, CRO 95%: ALP vs. CRO/POW P〈0.01). Power sport athletes had the most frequent use of supplemental creatine (45%), proteins/amino acids (30%), vitamins (88%) and minerals (82%), and CRO had the most frequent intake of iron (94%), vitamin C (88%) and fish oils (91%). Among ALP, only 7%, of the female athletes supplemented iron regularly compared to 37% of male ALP (P〈0.05) Overall, male athletes supplemented mostly on a regular basis and female athletes more on an occasional basis. The results show that in spite of differences between sport groups, many elite athletes report unsatisfactory nutritional habits. Micronutrient supplementation was prevalent, but varied between both groups of sports and gender.