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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Anatomy and embryology 172 (1985), S. 133-143 
    ISSN: 1432-0568
    Keywords: Wallerian degeneration ; Muscle nerve ; Postganglionic nerve fiber ; Ramus communicans griseus ; Sympathectomy
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary In cats the time course of degeneration following lumbal sympathectomy was studied in the ramus communicans griseus (reg) and in the nerves to the triceps surae muscle using light and electron microscopic methods. The left lumbar sympathetic trunk including its rami communicantes was removed from L2 to S1 using a lateral approach. The animals were sacrificed between 2 and 48 days after the sympathectomy. Tissue samples were taken (a) one cm proximal to the entrance of the rcg into the spinal nerve, and (b) one cm proximal to the entrance of the nerve into the muscle belly. In the reg signs of degeneration can already be recognized in the myelinated as well as in the unmyelinated axons 48h after sympathectomy. The degenerative processes in the axons reach their peak activity at about 4 days p.o. They end a weck later. Signs of the reactions of the Schwann cells and of the endoneural cells can first be seen 2 days p.o. They are most pronounced around the 8th day p.o., and last at least up to the third week. Thereafter the cicatrization processes settled to a rather steady state (total observation period 7 weeks). In the muscle nerves the first signs of an axonal degeneration of the sympathetic fibers can be recognized 4 days after surgery. The signs of axonal degeneration are most striking about 8 days p.o. They have more or less disappeared another week later. The reactions of the Schwann cells also start on the fourth day but outlast the degenerative processes by some 8 days. Thus the degenerative and reactive processes in the reg precede those in the muscle nerves by 2 days early after surgery and by 6 days 3 weeks later. Seven weeks after surgery, fragments of folded basement lamella and Remak bundles with condensed cytoplasm and numerous flat processes are persisting signs of the degeneration. In addition to the differences in time course between the proximal and the distal site of observation, it was also noted that both the axonal degeneration and the reactions of the Schwann cells are more pronounced in the rcg than in the muscle nerve. For example there was abundant mitotic activity in the central endoneural and Schwann cells whereas we could not detect such activity in the periphery. It is concluded that the time course of degeneration and the intensity of the degenerative and reactive processes is, to a considerable extent, determined by the distance between the site of nerve section and the site from which the specimen is taken. Many of the conflicting data in the literature can be explained by this finding.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Der Anaesthesist 47 (1998), S. 4-23 
    ISSN: 1432-055X
    Keywords: Schlüsselwörter Sympathisch unterhaltener Schmerz (SMP) ; komplexe regionale Schmerzsyndrome (CRPS) ; sympathische Reflexdystrophie (SRD) ; Mechanismen ; Key words Sympathetically maintained pain (SMP) ; Complex regional pain syndromes (CRPS) ; Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) ; Mechanisms
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Description / Table of Contents: Abstract The efferent sympathetic nervous system is organized into subsystems that innervate and regulate via separate peripheral sympathic pathways the different autonomic target organs. This review discusses mechanisms through which this efferent system may be causally involved in the generation of pain. Clinical pain syndromes in which this may be the case are „complex regional pain syndromes” (CRPS) type I (previously reflex sympathetic dystrophy) and type II (recently causalgia). The „sympathetically maintained pain” (SMP) is a symptom (and not a clinical entity) that can principally also be present in other pain syndromes. An explanatory hypothesis, which may explain the clinical phenomenology of CRPS (different types of pain, swelling, autonomic, motor and trophic changes) and the mechanisms involved, is described and discussed. This hypothesis consists of different components that either have been tested and verified experimentally or which are still hypothetical. The hypothesis consists of changes in the primary afferent (nociceptive and non-nociceptive) neurones (sensitization, ectopic impulse generation) and of the neurones in the spinal cord (preferentially in the dorsal horn) which are secondary consequences of the changes in the primary afferent neurones („central sensitization”). These changes are not specific for SMP. The centerpiece of the hypothesis is a positive feedback circuit that consists of the primary afferent neurones, spinal cord neurones, sympathic neurones and the pathologic sympathetic-afferent coupling. This coupling can occur directly via noradrenaline (or possibly another substance) at different sites of the afferent neurone (at the lesion site, remote from the lesion site in the periphery and in the spinal ganglion). The direct coupling requires that the afferent neurone expresses adrenoceptors. Indirect coupling can occur via the vascular bed or otherwise, e.g. by changes of the neurovascular transmission. The activity in the sympathetic neurones to the affected extremity can change. This change does not consist of a generalized increase of sympathetic activity but of a change of the reflexes (e.g., thermoregulatory and nociceptive reflexes). From this follows that the pathophysiologal processes operating in CRPS may occur at four levels of integration that interact with each other: effector organ, peripheral afferent and sympathetic neurone, spinal cord, supraspinal centres. Recent experimental investigations on rats show that the sympathetic nervous system is possibly also causally involved in the generation of inflammation and inflammatory pain. The mechanisms by which this occurs are different from those operating in SMP during CRPS.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Das efferente sympathische Nervensystem ist funktionell in Untersysteme organisiert, die über getrennte vegetativ-motorische Endstrecken die verschiedenen vegetativen Zielorgane innervieren und regulieren. In diesem Übersichtsartikel wird diskutiert, auf welche Weise dieses efferente System kausal an der Erzeugung von Schmerzen beteiligt sein kann. Klinische Schmerzsyndrome, bei denen dieses der Fall sein kann, sind die komplexen regionalen Schmerzsyndrome („complex regional pain syndromes”, CRPS) Typ I (früher sympathische Reflexdystrophie) und Typ II (früher Kausalgie). Die klinische Phänomenologie von CRPS besteht aus verschiedenen Formen von Schmerzen, Schwellungen an den Extremitäten und vegetativen, motorischen und trophischen Störungen. Der sympathisch unterhaltene Schmerz („sympathetically maintained pain”, SMP) ist dabei nur ein Symptom (und keine Krankheitsentität), welches im Prinzip auch bei anderen Schmerzsyndromen auftreten kann. Hypothese: Die erklärende Hypothese von CRPS beinhaltet Veränderungen der primär afferenten (nozizeptiven und nicht-nozizeptiven) Neurone (Sensibilisierung, ektope Impulsentstehung) und Veränderung der Neurone im Rückenmark (bevorzugt im Hinterhorn), die sekundär durch die Veränderungen der primär afferenten Neurone erzeugt werden („zentrale Sensibilisierung”). Diese Veränderungen sind nicht spezifisch für SMP. Kernstück der Hypothese ist ein positiver Rückkopplungskreis, der aus primär afferenten Neuronen, Neuronen des Rückenmarks, sympathischen Neuronen und der pathologischen sympathisch-afferenten Kopplung besteht. Diese Kopplung kann verschiedene direkte und indirekte Formen annehmen. Die direkte Kopplung geschieht über Noradrenalin (oder möglicherweise eine andere Substanz) und kann an verschiedenen Orten des afferenten Neurons stattfinden (am Läsionsort, entfernt vom Läsionsort in der Peripherie und im Spinalganglion). Die direkte Kopplung erfordert, daß die afferenten Neurone Adrenozeptoren exprimieren. Die indirekte Kopplung kann über das vaskuläre Bett oder anderweitig stattfinden, z.B. durch Veränderung der neurovaskulären Übertragung. Die Aktivität in den sympathischen Neuronen zu der betroffenen Extremität kann verändert sein. Diese Veränderung besteht nicht in einer generellen Erhöhung der sympathischen Aktivität, sondern in einer Veränderung der Reflexe (z.B. thermoregulatorische und nozizeptive Reflexe). Schlußfolgerungen: Aus diesen Betrachtungen folgt, daß sich die pathophysiologischen Prozesse von CRPS auf vier Integrationsebenen abspielen können, die miteinander interagieren: Effektororgan, periphere afferente und sympathische Neurone, Rückenmark, supraspinale Zentren. Neuere tierexperimentelle Untersuchungen zeigen, daß das sympathische Nervensystem vermutlich auch kausal an der Entstehung von Entzündung und Entzündungsschmerz beteiligt sein kann. Die Mechanismen, über die dieses geschieht, sind verschieden von den Mechanismen, über die Schmerzen und assoziierte Veränderungen bei CRPS erzeugt werden.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 20 (1974), S. 125-134 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Somato-sympathetic reflexes ; Cutaneous and muscle postganglionic neurones ; Noxious stimulation of skin ; Cat
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary 1. Somomato-sympathetic reflexes in postganglionic neurones to skin and muscle induced by noxious stimulation of skin were studied in cats anaesthetized with chloralose. The reflexes were elicited by mechanical damaging stimuli and by temperature stimuli of more than 45°C. 2. In most cutaneous units the spontaneous activity was depressed during noxious stimulation of skin. Some cutaneous units were excited or showed mixed responses. The depression of the spontaneous activity was maximal from the skin area which was innervated by the cutaneous postganglionic neurones and much weaker or not elicitable from other skin areas. 3. Most muscle units were excited during noxious stimulation of skin. This excitation could be elicited from all over the body surface. 4. The effective cutaneous afferent fibres which are involved in these reflexes are the Group III axones which are excitable by mechanical damaging stimuli and the Group IV axones which are excitable by mechanical damaging and/or by thermal noxious stimuli. 5. These investigations reveal that the somato-sympathetic reflexes have opposite organization in cutaneous and muscle postganglionic fibres. The reflex patterns are discussed in relation to a possible central organization of the sympathetic nervous system.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 21 (1974), S. 155-168 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Somato-sympathetic reflexes ; Chronic spinal cats ; Cutaneous and muscle postganglionic neurones ; Noxious and nonnoxious stimulation of skin ; Recovery of reflexes
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary 1. Reflex and spontaneous activity in cutaneous and muscle postganglionic neurones of the hind leg were investigated in 10 chloralose anaesthetized cats which were spinalized at Th8 7 to 96 days before the experiments. The reflexes were elicited by electrical stimulation of cutaneous Group II to Group IV afferent fibres in the sural nerve and by natural stimulation of hairs and of cutaneous nociceptors. 2. Electrical stimulation of cutaneous afferent fibres elicited the same reflex pattern in both cutaneous and muscle postganglionic neurons. Group II fibres had — if any effects — mostly inhibitory effects on the postganglionic neurones. Stimulation of Group III and Group IV fibres induced excitation followed by a depression of the spontaneous activity in the postganglionic neurones. 3. Natural stimulation of hairs by air jets induced depression of the spontaneous activity in both types of postganglionic neurones. Noxious mechanical or thermal stimuli to the skin induced excitation in both types of postganglionic neurones. The spontaneous activity in cutaneous postganglionic neurones could additionally be depressed by noxious stimuli applied to the skin area which is very close to the area innervated by these neurones. 4. Reflexes and spontaneous activity recovered partially in cutaneous postganglionic neurones in about 10 weeks after spinalization. Those in muscle postganglionic neurones recovered partially after about 4 weeks. They were stronger in muscle postganglionic neurones than in cutaneous postganglionic neurones. 5. The results are discussed in relation to the central organization of the sympathetic nervous system in the neuraxis and in relation to other investigations of the somato-sympathetic reflexes in spinal animals.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 6 (1968), S. 100-115 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Mechanoreceptors ; Pacinian corpuscles ; Cutaneous afferents ; Peripheral encoding ; Skin sensitivity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary The properties of mechanosensitive units with large myelinated afferents were determined in the hairless skin of the central pad of the cat's hind foot, and the total afferent outflow from this region after short skin indentations and during constant force stimuli was measured in the plantar nerves. Basically three types of mechanosensitive units with afferent conduction velocities above 40 m/s were found: (a) receptors with the properties of Pacinian corpuscles (PC-receptors); (b) receptors which showed burst discharges for up to 500 ms after the onset of a constant force stimulus (RA-receptors); and (c) receptors which discharged throughout a constant force stimulus (SA-receptors). The afferent conduction velocities of these units were in the same range as those of receptors from the surrounding hairy skin. A considerable proportion of receptors from both skin areas had no collaterals in the dorsal columns. The afferent outflow after short skin indentations of up to 5 μ displacement consisted of impulses from PC-receptors only. Stimuli of 20 μ recruited between 50 and 100 afferent units of which less than 10% were other than PC-units. During constant force stimuli the afferent outflow came from SA-receptors only. Ten seconds after stimulus onset a 500 g stimulus evoked an afferent discharge of about 1000 imp/s and a 1000 g stimulus of about 1700 imp/s. At all times a power function of the form F=K · (S−S0)n related the afferent discharge F to the stimulus intensity S. The exponents were around n=0.5 and tended to increase in the course of the stimulus.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 6 (1968), S. 116-129 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Cutaneous afferents ; Primary afferent depolarization ; Presynaptic inhibition ; Surround inhibition ; Spinal cord
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary In five types of mechanoreceptor afferents of the cat's hind foot, the primary afferent depolarization (PAD) induced by mechanical skin stimulation was measured by testing the excitability of their terminations in the dorsal horn. Two types of skin stimuli were used to set up activity in distinct populations of rapidly and slowly adapting mechanoreceptors respectively. The experiments revealed that two systems exist to generate PAD in cutaneous afferents, both being of negative feedback character. One system is activated by impulses from rapidly adapting low threshold receptors and preferentially depolarizes the terminals of such afferents, and correspondingly, the other system is activated by and operates on the slowly adapting units. In both PAD systems the size of the depolarization is graded depending on the stimulus strength. Further, the “tonic” system displays a “surround” pattern of organization similar to that of the “phasic” system which has already been described (Schmidt et al. 1967b). In the discussion the operational relationships of both systems and their functional implications are outlined.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 113 (1997), S. 402-410 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Key words Vasoconstriction ; Antidromic vasodilatation ; Sympathetic nervous system ; Axon reflex
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract  We studied the interaction between the vasoconstriction evoked by postganglionic sympathetic neurones (sympathetic vasoconstriction) and the vasodilatation mediated by small-diameter afferent neurones (antidromic vasodilatation) in hairless skin of anaesthetized rats kept under controlled conditions. In all animals both the lumbar sympathetic trunk (LST) and the ipsilateral dorsal root (DR) L5 were surgically exposed, sectioned and electrically stimulated using different protocols. This experimental approach results in the exclusive and selective activation of sympathetic efferents and primary afferents respectively. Blood flow responses were measured using laser Doppler flowmetry. Sectioning the LST resulted in a pronounced increase in cutaneous blood flow by 112±15% (mean±SEM, n=25) indicating that ongoing sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity had been abolished. When a brief antidromic vasodilatation was produced by DR stimulation with 10–15 pulses at 1 Hz with C-fibre intensity during a sustained sympathetic vasoconstriction, peak blood flow reached preconstriction levels at LST stimulation frequencies of ≤3 Hz. By contrast, antidromic vasodilatation was reduced at sympathetic stimulation frequencies of ≥5 Hz and absent when stimulating the LST with 20 Hz. A similar response characteristic was obtained when LST and DR stimulation were started simultaneously. Continuous DR stimulation with 0.1 Hz evoked a substantial increase in cutaneous blood flow by 38±10% (mean±SEM, n=8) to a new baseline level. When sympathetic vasoconstriction was elicited on this background DR stimulation, the responses were smaller at all sympathetic frequencies. However, the maximum decrease in blood flow was significantly smaller than the controls at LST stimulation with ≤3 Hz but not at higher frequencies. We conclude that sympathetic vasoconstriction and antidromic vasodilatation are competitive influences in the control of cutaneous blood flow. At low levels of cutaneous sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity, which probably prevail under resting conditions in the absence of cold stress, antidromic vasodilatation overrides sympathetic vasoconstriction. At high levels of cutaneous sympathetic activity, which may be reached in normal life under the conditions of severe cold, sympathetic vasoconstriction can suppress antidromic vasodilatation almost totally.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 8
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Key words Vasoconstriction ; Antidromic vasodilation ; Microcirculation ; Thermography ; Laser Doppler flowmetry
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract  We quantitatively investigated sympathetic vasoconstriction and antidromic vasodilation mediated by small-diameter primary afferents on the plantar hairless skin of the hindpaws in Wistar rats using laser Doppler (LD) flowmetry and an infrared thermometer. Sympathetic vasoconstriction was elicited by electrical stimulation of the centrally cut ipsilateral lumbar sympathetic trunk (LST) with 50-s trains at 0.1–20 Hz. Antidromic vasodilation was evoked by electrical stimulation of the dorsal root (DR) L5 with 20-s or 50-s trains at 1–4 Hz. Cutting the LST resulted in increases in skin temperature (SKT) by 6.1±1.0° C (mean±SEM) and in LD flow by 128±20%. Stimulation of the LST resulted in a graded decrease in LD flow and SKT that was most pronounced between 0 and 0.1 Hz. However, DR stimulation evoked a large increase in LD flow but only little change in SKT in rats with sectioned LST. When the DR was stimulated either in animals with intact LST or during continuous stimulation of vasoconstrictor fibres in the sectioned LST, i.e. while baseline temperature was relatively low (26.3±1.1° C), DR stimulation still resulted in large increases in LD flow, but only minor changes in SKT. These results suggest that blood flow through both deep and superficial layers of rat hairless skin is regulated by activity in sympathetic postganglionic vasoconstrictor fibres, whereas small-diameter primary afferent fibres appear to influence predominantly the blood flow through superficial layers of rat plantar skin.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental brain research 20 (1974), S. 115-123 
    ISSN: 1432-1106
    Keywords: Somato-sympathetic reflexes ; Postganglionic fibres to skin and muscle ; Natural stimulation of skin ; Hair-follicle receptors ; Cat
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Summary 1. Somato-sympathetic reflexes in postganglionic neurones to hairy skin and to muscle produced by mechanical non-noxious stimulation of skin were studied in cats anesthetized with chloralose. Most of the postganglionic fibres investigated were spontaneously active and had presumably vasoconstrictor function. 2. In 60% of the cutaneous postganglionic neurones stimulation of hairs induced predominantly excitation. This excitation was mostly followed by a slight depression of the spontaneous activity. In 30% of the neurones the spontaneous activity was depressed or predominantly depressed by these stimuli. 3. In most muscle postganglionic neurones the spontaneous activity was depressed by stimulation of hairs. 4. In both types of neurones the reflexes were produced by activity in hair follicle receptors with Group II afferents. Hair follicle receptors with Group III afferents most probably also contributed to this effect. Except for a slight depression of the spontaneous activity in some cutaneous postganglionic neurones by slowly adapting receptors, mechanical stimulation of other types of receptors with Group II afferents had no effect on the postganglionic neurones. 5. Reflexes in postganglionic neurones could be elicited by stimulation of hairy skin all over the body surfaces.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology 23 (1996), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1440-1681
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: 1. In recent years, fine sensory nerve fibres have been detected that are not excited by physiological stimuli, even at potentially tissue damaging intensities. These silent afferents are known to supply knee joint, skin and viscera; in the last case, silent afferents seem to be particularly numerous.2. When an artificial inflammation is induced, many silent afferents develop spike activity, others remain quiescent. Silent afferents that do respond probably have a nociceptive sensory function. Under inflammatory conditions some silent afferents are sensitized to physiological stimuli, others are probably chemospecific.3. Orthodromic activity in silent afferents may sum spatially and temporally in second order neurons with other nociceptive information and may thereby contribute to different pain states. Furthermore, there is evidence that the activation of chemospecific silent afferents may lead to sensitization of nociceptive dorsal horn neurons.4. Some silent afferents probably contain neuropeptides that may be liberated under pathophysiological conditions, such as inflammation.5. Whether certain pathological states can be exclusively attributed to the activation of silent afferents or whether silent afferents sustain the functions of ‘conventional’ nociceptors remains to be clarified.
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