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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 25 (2002), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The deleterious influence of atmospheric moisture on the fatigue properties of an aluminium wrought alloy AlZnMgCu1.5-T6, an aluminium cast alloy AlSi9Cu3 and magnesium cast alloys AM60 hp, AZ91 hp and AS21 hp has been studied at a cycling frequency of 20 kHz. Atmospheric moisture accelerates fatigue crack growth and decreases the threshold stress intensities to 55–75% of the respective values in vacuum. In ambient air, fatigue crack growth rates were up to two decades higher than those in vacuum. Accelerated crack growth was found at propagation rates below about 2 × 10−9 m cycle−1 in aluminium alloys and below about 3 × 10−8 m cycle−1 in magnesium alloys. As the threshold regime is approached, fatigue cracks in ambient air either propagate at a minimum mean growth rate on average of approximately one lattice spacing per cycle or they stop propagating, whereas mean growth rates of 10−12 m cycle−1 were found in vacuum. Crack initiation and slow fatigue crack growth mainly determine lifetimes in the high cycle regime, and endurance data obtained at ultrasonic frequency in ambient air of 40–60% relative humidity are similar to lifetimes measured at conventional frequencies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 22 (1999), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The reliability of airworthiness assessment and the effective management of ageing fleets of aircraft depend critically on the quality of tools for predicting damage nucleation and accumulation and its detection, i.e. on the interrelationship between the probabilities of occurrence and detection. To illustrate these interrelationships, a mechanistically based probability approach involving localized pitting corrosion and subsequent fatigue cracking is presented. A probability of detection based on a typical state-of-the-art technique for non-destructive evaluation is used for comparison and probabilistic assessment. The results suggest that the probability of detection is inadequate, and information on damage size should be included as part of an effective airworthiness assurance methodology. An appropriate target for detecting and sizing damage of ≈ 0.10 mm with a probability of detection and a confidence level of at least 90% is suggested, versus the current capability of 1.27 mm at only 50%
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 25 (2002), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An essential aim for the study of fatigue cracking is the development of science-based methods for reliability and service life assessments as a part of the life-cycle design and management of engineered systems. In this context, a critical comparison between a mechanistically based probability and the more traditional, empirically based statistical approaches for reliability analysis and life prediction is presented. The comparison serves to highlight the need for quantitative, mechanistic understanding and modeling and for the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach. Current understanding of the influences of gaseous and aqueous environments on fatigue cracking, particularly with respect to the effects of frequency and temperature, is briefly summarized, and special considerations for fatigue at very high frequencies are discussed. The efficacy of the mechanistically based probability approach is illustrated through a comparison of the estimated and observed distribution of corrosion and corrosion fatigue damage in Boeing 707 aircraft that had been in commercial service for 24 years.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 24 (2001), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A plausible mechanistically based probability model for localized pitting corrosion and subsequent fatigue crack nucleation and growth is used to analyse tear-down inspection data from two retired B-707 aircraft that had been in commercial service for about 24 and 30 years. Sections of the left-hand lower wing skins from these aircraft had been previously disassembled and inspected optically at 20× magnification. The inspections were augmented by metallographic examinations for the lower time aircraft. The evolution of damage in the fastener holes is estimated by using reasonable values for the localized corrosion and fatigue crack growth rates, statistically estimated from laboratory data. The primary loading, assumed to be the mean design load, is considered to be from ground–air–ground wing bending cycles, augmented by ‘average’ gust loading, only. The encouraging agreement between the estimated probability of occurrence and the observed distribution of multiple hole–wall cracks attests to the efficacy of the approach and its relevancy to airworthiness assessment and fleet life management.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Theoretical and applied genetics 91 (1995), S. 389-394 
    ISSN: 1432-2242
    Keywords: Breeding population ; Phenotypic selection ; Genetic gain ; Inbreeding ; Effective size
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Phenotypic selection is modified by introducing upper limits on the portion (P 1) of individuals selected from a family as well as on the portion (P 2) of family number that are allowed to contribute. At a preset selection proportion, P and P 1, the maximum genetic gain is obtained by finding an optimum restriction on family number (P 2 * ). A numerical procedure for solving the problem of optimization is developed for infinite populations. In small populations, maximum gain and P 2 * can be found by simply comparing all possible P2. Numerical examples are demonstrated for infinite breeding populations, assuming a normally-distributed family mean and within-family deviation. Selection and its simulation were applied to the fieldtest results of two tree species. Optimum restriction on family number is very close to P/P 1, especially when heritability is low. In the real world of tree breeding, P 2 * is given, or approximated, by P/P 1+1/ tm where m is the initial family number. The improvement of gain and the conservation of inbreeding effective population size are easy with high heritability and could be simultaneously obtained by using intense selection with a relatively low P 1.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 10 (1974), S. 77-85 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé On a reconnu depuis quelque temps l'importance que revêt, pour une prédiction fiable de l'endurance en fatigue des éléments de construction, le ralentissement dans la vitesse de propagation des fissures de fatigue, résultant d'interaction des charges lorsque celles-ci sont d'amplitudes variables. Jusqu'à présent, seul un petit nombre de combinaisons de charges ou de spectres ont fait l'objet d'un examen systématique. Dans la présente étude, on a étudié les effets d'une gamme étendue de variations de la charge sur le retard à la propagation des fissures de fatigue à température ambiante, dans le cas d'un alliage Ti-6A1-4V recuit. Les résultats de cette étude sont appliqués à l'estimation de l'extension des fissures de fatigue sous des programmes collectifs de charges.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung Die Wichtigkeit des Einflusses des Aufschiebung oder Verspätung der Ausdehnungsgeschwindigkeit eines Müdigkeitrisses, unter Belastung mit wechselnder Amplitude, durch gegenseitige Beeinflussung der Lasten, auf die genaue Voraussagung der Müdigkeitslebensdauer von Bauelementen ist seit einer gewissen Zeit gut bekannt. Bis jetzt wurden nur einige einfachen Belastungsfälle oder Kollektive systematisch untersucht. In diesem Bericht wird der Einfluss von einer grossen Anzahl Belastungsveränderlichen auf die Verspätung der Ausdehnungsge-schwindigkeit eines Müdigkeitrisses bei Zimmertemperatur untersucht, für einen geglühten Ti-6A1-4V legierten Stahl. Die Ergebnisse werden gebraucht um die Rissausdehnung unter einem Belastungskollektiv vorauszusagen.
    Notes: Abstract The importance of delay, or retardation in the rate of fatigue crack growth, produced by load interactions in variable amplitude loading on the accurate prediction of fatigue lives of engineering structures has been well recognized for some time. Heretofore, only a few simple loading combinations or spectra have been examined systematically. In this investigation the effects of a broad range of loading variables on delay in fatigue crack growth at room temperature are examined for a mill annealed Ti-6A1-4V alloy. The results are used to estimate crack growth behavior under programmed loads.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 17 (1981), S. 235-247 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé La fatigue des métaux a été reconnue comme une cause importante de rupture des structures métalliques. Dans la plupart des applications, le dommage par fatigue résulte de l'action conjointe d'une contrainte appliquée de manière cyclique et d'un environnement extérieur (chimique). Dès lors, elle dépend du temps. Il est essentiel de comprendre les interactions contrainte/environnement pour la formulation de procédure de prédiction de vie résiduelle et pour le développement d'évaluation et d'essai de qualification réaliste pour l'étude des matériaux. Les recherches entreprises au cours des 15 dernières années ont conduit à suggérer que la vitesse de propagation d'une fissure de fatigue dans un environnement agressif (da/dN) résulte de trois composants: la vitesse de propagation d'une fissure de fatigue dans un environnement inerte, qui représente la contribution de la fatigue pure, une composante dépendant de l'alternance et qui exprime l'interaction synergétique de la fatigue et de l'attaque provoquée par l'environnement, et une contribution d'une croissance de fissure sous charge constante (c.à.d. fissuration sous corrosion sous tension) à un niveau K supérieur à K Isc. Les études récentes de mécanique de rupture et de chimie de surface ont fourni une compréhension plus claire du terme dépendant de l'alternance et dés lors, une explication plus compllète de la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue en présence d'un environnement. La composante dépendant de l'alternance résulte de la réaction de l'environnement à une surface de fissuration fraiche produite par la fatigue et est fonction de l'étendue de la réaction au cours d'un seul cycle de sollicitation. Dans le cas de systèmes alliage-environnement hautement réactifs, cette contribution dépend également de la vitesse de transport de l'environnement agressif à l'extrémité de la fissure. La base expérimentale et le développement de modèles pour le transport et la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue contrôlée sous l'effet des réactions de surface ont été passés en revue. Une interprétation des effets d'une pression partielle de l'environnement agressif ainsi que de la fréquence des cycles de sollicitation est discutée en terme de réactions de surface et de processus de transfert. Les implications que ces conclusions présentent sur la performance en service et les procédures de prédiction de vue sont discutées.
    Notes: Abstract Metal fatigue has been well recognized as an important cause for failure of engineering structures. In most applications, fatigue damage results from the conjoint actions of the cyclically applied stress and the external (chemical) environment, and is therefore time dependent. Understanding of this load-environment interaction is essential to the formulation of rational life prediction procedures and to the development of realistic materials evaluation and qualification tests. Research over the past 15 years has led to the suggestion that the rate of fatigue crack growth in an aggressive environment, (da/dN)e, is the sum of three components—the rate of fatigue crack growth in an inert environment, (da/dN)r, which represents the contribution of “pure” fatigue, a cycle-dependent component, (da/dN)cf, that requires the synergistic interaction of fatigue and environmental attack, and the contribution by sustained-load crack growth (i.e., stress corrosion cracking) at K levels above K Iscc, (da/dN)scc. Recent fracture mechanics and surface chemistry studies have provided a clearer understanding of the cycle-dependent term, and, hence, a more complete understanding of environment assisted fatigue crack growth. (da/dN)cf results from the reaction of the environment with fresh crack surfaces produced by fatigue, and is a function of the extent of reaction during one loading cycle. For highly reactive alloy-environment systems, this contribution depends also on the rate of transport of the aggressive environment to the crack tip. The experimental basis and the development of models for transport and surface reaction controlled fatigue crack growth are reviewed. Interpretation of the effects of partial pressure of the aggressive environment and cyclic load frequency in terms of surface reaction and transport processes is discussed. Implications in terms of service performance and life prediction procedures are considered.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 13 (1977), S. 105-106 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 69 (1994), S. R63 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 9 (1973), S. 277-293 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé On a détermine la cinétique de la croissance subcritique des fissures sous charge constante dans l'eau distillée pour un acier AISI 4340 revenu à 400°F. Les essais de propagation de fissure ont été exécutés dans une gamme de températures comprise entre 10 et 75°C, les efforts étant caractérisés par le facteur K d'intensité des contraintes à l'extrémité de la fissure. Les résultats démontrent que la croissance de la fissure dans l'eau distillée est régie par un processus d'activation thermique, dont les énergies d'activation apparente dépendent de K. La propagation de la fissure ne se produit que lorsque K dépasse un certain seuil; les vitesses de propagation dépendent fortement de K à ses niveaux les moins elevés au-dessus de ce seuil, mais tendent vers une valeur limite constante lorsque K est important. Cette vitesse limite correspond à une énergie d'activation apparente de 8000±1000 cal/môle, ce qui est en accord avec les valeurs que l'on a trouvées pour la propagation des fissures dans des aciers similaires. Cette énergie d'activation correspond à celle qui est nécessaire pour la diffusion de l'hydrogène dans l'acier AISI 4340. Ceci constitue un argument supplémentaire en faveur du concept suivant lequel la vitesse de croissance des fissures dans les aciers à haute résistance en présence d'eau est limitée par un processus de diffusion de l'hydrogène dans la région de l'extrémité de la fissure.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung Die Kinetik der subkritischen Rißausbreitung bei konstanter Belastung in distilliertem Wasser wird für ein Stahl AISI 4340, der auf 400°F Wärme behandelt wurde, aufgestellt. Die Rißausbreitungsversuche wurden, unter Verwendung des Spannungsintensitätfaktors K an der Spitze des Risses zur Charakterisierung der mechanischen Fortbewegungskraft, in einem Temperaturbereich von 10 bis 75°C ausgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen daß die Ausbreitung des Risses im distillierten Wasser durch ein thermisches Beschleunigungsverfahren regiert wird, wo die Beschleunigungsenergie von K abhängt. Rißausbreitung kann nur über einem gewissen Niveau der Höhe von K zu stande kommen mit Rißausbreitungsgeschwindigkeiten die stark von K abhängen für die Werte die nahe über diesem Niveau liegen, die aber einen Konstanten Oberwert anstreben für höhere Werte von K. Diesem Oberwert der Geschwindigkeit gehört eine Beschleunigungsenergie von 8000±1000 Kal/mole an was mit den Werten die man für ähnliche Stähle gefunden hat übereinstimmt. Diese Beschleunigungsenergie ist die gleiche wie die, die zur Diffusion von Wasserstoff in Stahl AISI 4340 nötig ist. Dies ist ein zusätzliches Argument zur Annahme daß die Rißausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit für Stähle, mit hoher Bruchlast, im Wasser durch ein Diffusionsverfahren vom Wasserstoff in der Gegend der Spitze des Risses begrenzt wird.
    Notes: Abstract The kinetics of subcritical crack growth under sustained loading for an AISI 4340 steel tempered at 400°F in distilled water were determined. Crack growth experiments were carried out over a range of temperatures from 10–75°C, using the crack tip stress intensity factor, K, to characterize the mechanical driving force. Results show that crack growth in distilled water is controlled by a thermally activated process with apparent activation energies that depend on K. Crack growth occurred only above a threshold K level with growth rates showing a strong K dependence at lower values of K and attaining constant, rate limiting values at higher K levels. The rate limiting velocities correspond to an apparent activation energy of 8000±1000 cal/mole, in essential agreement with values reported for crack growth in similar steels. This apparent activation energy corresponds to that for hydrogen permeation in AISI 4340 steel and lends further support to the concept that the rate limiting process for crack growth in high strength steels in water is that of hydrogen permeation into the crack-tip region. Because of the differences in the apparent activation energies for crack growth in water and in gaseous hydrogen, the rate limiting step in the permeation process still needs to be defined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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