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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Behavioral economics of drug self-administration (1992)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 107 (1992), S. 211-216 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Behavioral economics ; Drug self-administration ; Reinforcer interactions ; Concurrent reinforcers ; Cigarette smoking ; Coffee drinking ; Humans
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract In behavioral economics, consumption of a reinforcer is determined by its price and by the price of other available reinforcers. This study examined the effects of price manipulations on the consumption of concurrently available coffee and cigarettes. During fifteen 4-h sessions, coffee and cigarettes were concurrently available according to fixed-ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement. After consumption stabilized under a fixed ratio 100 for both reinforcers, the response requirement for each reinforcer was varied separately (i.e., FR 100, 1000 and 2500), while the response requirement for the other reinforcer was kept at 100. Increasing the FR value decreased coffee and cigarette consumption to a similar degree. Also, as the price for cigarettes increased (and consumption decreased), coffee consumption decreased; however, as the price of coffee increased, cigarette consumption did not change. These results indicate that for this setting the reinforcing effects of cigarettes and coffee were comparable but interacted asymmetrically. These findings when analyzed and quantified via economic concepts of own-price and cross-price elasticity illustrate the viability of using behavioral economics to examine drug self-administration in a choice paradigm.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02245139
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Alcohol pretreatment increases preference for cocaine over monetary reinforcement (1996)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 123 (1996), S. 1-8 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Cocaine ; Alcohol ; Self-administration ; Choice ; Heart rate ; Cardiac function ; Humans
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Non-dependent cocaine users participated in a two-phase experiment conducted under controlled laboratory conditions. During phase 1, subjects sampled intranasal cocaine (100 mg) and placebo (96 mg lactose +4 mg cocaine) in separate sessions and under double-blind conditions. Sampling sessions were followed by a single choice session in which subjects made a maximum of ten choices between 10 mg unit doses of cocaine or placebo. Only subjects who reliably (≥70%) chose cocaine over placebo in phase 1 participated in phase 2. During phase 2, subjects participated in a series of nine experimental sessions conducted on different days in which they were pretreated with varying doses of alcohol (placebo, 0.5, and 1.0 g/kg) and made a maximum of ten choices between 10 mg unit doses of cocaine and an alternative reinforcer (i.e., varying amounts of money). Visual-analog ratings of drug effects and cardiac function were monitored across all experimental sessions. Cocaine was reliably chosen over placebo by the majority (9 of 11) of subjects during phase 1, demonstrating that the drug functioned as a reinforcer. During phase 2, alcohol pretreatment significantly increased choice of cocaine over the alternative reinforcer, while increasing monetary value decreased cocaine choice. Ratings on some visual-analog scales (e.g., good effects) paralleled cocaine choice, with alcohol pretreatment increasing ratings and greater monetary value decreasing them. Cardiac output increased above baseline levels across all alcohol and monetary conditions, but maximal effects were observed during sessions involving pretreatment with the active alcohol doses. Overall, these results demonstrate (a) that alcohol can increase preference for cocaine over alternative reinforcers and thereby may thwart efforts to reduce or abstain from cocaine use, (b) that availability of an alternative, non-drug reinforcer can effectively decrease preference for cocaine, and (c) that combined use of alcohol and cocaine increases cardiac risk compared to use of cocaine alone.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02246274
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Acute behavioral and cardiac effects of cocaine and alcohol combinations in humans (1993)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 111 (1993), S. 285-294 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Cocaine ; Alcohol ; Drug interactions ; Psychomotor performance ; Heart rate ; Humans ; Cardiac effects
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Subjects received acute doses of orally administered alcohol (0–1.0 g/kg) and intranasal cocaine (4–96 mg/70 kg) alone and in combination in two experiments. Results generally were consistent across both experiments. Cocaine administered alone improved Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) performance, increased subject ratings of stimulant-like effects, heart rate and blood pressure, and decreased skin temperature. Alcohol administered alone disrupted DSST performance, increased ratings of drunkenness, heart rate and skin temperature, and decreased blood pressure. Combining cocaine and alcohol attenuated the disruptions in DSST performance observed with alcohol alone, and either did not change or attenuated the improvements in performance observed with cocaine alone. Combining the drugs also attenuated effects observed with the drugs alone on skin temperature and, to a lesser extent, blood pressure. By contrast, drug combinations increased heart rate above levels observed when cocaine or alcohol were administered alone. Effects of the drug combinations on subject ratings were variable.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02244943
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Drug discrimination by humans compared to nonhumans: current status and future directions (1993)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 111 (1993), S. 259-270 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Drug discrimination ; Discriminative stimulus ; Inter-species comparison ; Stimulus control ; Stimulus effects of drugs ; Drug cues ; Discriminative effects of drugs ; Humans ; Mood ; Subjective effects
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract In drug discrimination (DD) procedures, behavior is differentially reinforced depending on the presence or absence of specific drug stimuli. The DD paradigm has been widely adopted by behavioral pharmacologists because of its specificity of stimulus control, concordance with drug action at cellular levels and its use as a preclinical model of subject-rated effects in humans. With the successful extension of DD to humans, a comparison of human and nonhuman DD will help place each in the context of the other. Twenty-eight studies of DD in humans are reviewed, including studies of amphetamine, opioid, benzodiazepine, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana and ethanol discriminative stimuli. Comparison of procedures between studies in humans and nonhumans reveals a common tradition, except the use of instructions appears to facilitate greatly DD acquisition in humans. Findings were qualitatively similar between humans and nonhumans. Potency relationships were quantitatively similar between humans and most, but not all, other species. Areas of human DD needing additional empirical evaluation include the influence of instructions, the effects of training dose and the effects of antagonists. Additionally, antihistamines, barbiturates, nicotine and marijuana are under-represented in human DD.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02244940
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of diazepam and hydromorphone in triazolam-trained humans under a novel-response drug discrimination procedure (1994)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 114 (1994), S. 417-423 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Benzodiazepine ; Diazepam ; Drug discrimination ; Humans ; Hydromorphone ; Novel-response procedure ; Triazolam
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Seven healthy normal male and female volunteers (21–31 years) were trained to discriminate between the benzodiazepine triazolam (0.32 mg/70 kg, PO; e.g., drug A) and placebo (e.g., drug B) under a three-choice, instructed novel response drug discrimination procedure. Once the criterion for discrimination was met (i.e., 〉85% correct responding on four consecutive sessions), dose-effect curves were determined for triazolam (0.1–0.56 mg/70 kg), the benzodiazepine diazepam (10–32 mg/70 kg) and the opioid agonist hydromorphone (1–6 mg/70 kg). Subjects met the criterion for discrimination within four to six sessions. Triazolam and diazepam produced dose-related increases in triazolam-appropriate responding and no novel-appropriate responding at any dose tested. In contrast, hydromorphone generally increased novel-appropriate responding in a dose-related manner, with placebo-appropriate responding and some triazolam-appropriate responding at intermediate doses occurring also. Triazolam and diazepam produced qualitatively similar increases on several measures of sedative drug effects; hydromorphone increased ratings of “like novel” and sedative-like effects in subjects who discriminated hydromorphone as novel relative to those who did not. These results indicate that the novel response drug discrimination procedure enhances the specificity of the triazolam-placebo discrimination.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02249331
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effects of intranasal cocaine on human learning, performance and physiology (1990)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 102 (1990), S. 451-458 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Cocaine ; Psychomotor performance ; Learning ; Heart rate ; Humans
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract The behavioral and physiological effects of intranasally administered cocaine (placebo, 48, 96 mg/70 kg) were examined in eight recreational cocaine users under controlled laboratory conditions. The 48 and 96 mg doses of cocaine significantly improved subjects' performance on the Digit Symbol Substitution Test above levels observed either prior to drug administration or when placebo was administered. These effects were discernible for up to 120 min after cocaine administration. Cocaine had no statistically significant effects on learning and performance of ten-response sequences. The 48 and 96 mg doses increased heart rate and blood pressure for up to 180 min, and increased subject ratings of drug effects and decreased skin temperature for 60–90 min after drug administration. Cocaine produced no significant effects on the electrocardiogram. To our knowledge, this is the first experimental demonstration that acutely administered cocaine can improve behavioral performance in rested subjects. In addition, the duration of cardiac effects in this study was longer than previously reported with intranasal cocaine, perhaps due to the concurrent behavioral testing.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02247124
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Forced-choice versus free-choice procedures: Caffeine self-administration in humans (1992)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 109 (1992), S. 85-91 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Caffeine ; Coffee ; Concurrent schedules ; Drug self-administration ; Humans ; Methodology ; Reinforcement
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract Methodological comparisons of procedures for drug self-administration are rare. In studies examining the reinforcing effect of caffeine in humans, caffeine self-administration usually has been inferred from performance under forced-choice procedures. In the present experiment, caffeine self-administration via coffee was compared under forced-choice and free-choice conditions; i.e., when subjects were and were not required to use a minimum number of coffees. Ten moderate coffee drinkers (2–7 cups/day) were assigned to forced- and free-choice conditions using a randomized cross-over design. Under each choice condition, subjects completed six independent, double-blind trials, consisting of a 2-day exposure period followed by a 2-day test period. During exposure, subjects consumed either decaffeinated or caffeinated (100 mg/serving) coffee on day 1 and the other coffee on day 2. During the test period, subjects had concurrent access to the same decaffeinated and caffeinated coffees. Under the forced-choice condition, subjects were required to drink at least four cups of coffee per day during the test period. Under the free-choice condition, subjects did not have a minimum-cup requirement. In general, the relative rate at which subjects self-administered caffeinated versus decaffeinated coffee was similar across choice conditions, even though subjects self-administered significantly fewer cups of both coffee types under the free-choice than the forced-choice condition. These results suggest that, at least for caffeine, forced-choice and free-choice procedures produce comparable results. Whether this finding generalizes to a context in which caffeine or another drug is more robustly self-administered, remains to be determined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02245484
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