Abstract
Activation of arterial blood pressure has been shown to influence higher central nervous activity. In animals, induction of sleep-like states and increases of seizure and pain thresholds in response to baroreceptor stimulation have been reported. In certain human groups, mechanical stimulation of the carotid baroreceptors also increases pain thresholds. The present paper examines the hypothesis that smokers show baroreceptor dependent antinociception as compared to non-smokers. It is speculated that one effect which rewards smoking is the nicotine induced phasic blood pressure increase which leads to baroreceptor stimulation and dampens pain perception. One hundred and twenty subjects were investigated using a recently developed mechanical baroreceptor stimulation technique and an electrical pain stimulus. The group of heavy smokers showed the predicted effect: their pain thresholds were enhanced during conditions of increased baroreceptor activity as compared to the control condition. The group of medium, light and non-smokers, however, did not show this effect. Neither blood lipid levels nor diastolic or systolic blood pressure paralleled the group differences on baroreceptor dependent antinociception. In heavy smokers, the nicotine induced phasic blood pressure increase might have baroreceptor dependent pain dampening effects, which might be among the reinforcing qualities of smoking.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ashton H, Millman JE, Telford R, Thompson JW (1974) The effect of caffeine, nitrazepam and cigarette smoking on the contingent negative variation in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 37:59–71
Ashton H Marsh VR, Millman JE, Rawlins MD, Telford R, Thompson JW (1980). Biphasic dose-related responses of the CNV (contingent negative variation) to I.V. nicotine in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 10:679–589
Benowitz NL (1986) Increased 24-hour energy expenditure in cigarette smokers. N Engl J Med 314:1641–1642
Benowitz NL, Kuyt F, Jacob PI (1984) Influence of nicotine on cardiovascular and hormonal effects, of cigarette smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 32:74–81
Benowitz NL, Porchet H, Jacob P (1990) Pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and pharmacodynamics of nicotine. In: Wonnacott S, Russell MAH, Stolerman IP (eds) Nicotine psychopharmacology. Molecular, cellular and behavioural aspects. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 112–157
Bonvallet M, Dell P, Hiebel G (1953) Sinus carotidien et activité electrique cerebrale. CR Soc Bio 147:1166–1169
Bromm B (1985) Evoked cerebral potential and pain. In: Fields HL, Dubner R, Cervero F (eds) Advances in pain research and therapy. Raven Press, New York, pp 305–329
Dworkin B (1988) Hypertension as a learned response: the baroreceptor reinforcement. In: Elbert T, Langosch W, Steptoe A, Vaitl D (eds) Behavioral medicine in cardiovascular disorders. Wiley, Chichester, pp 17–47
Dworkin B, Filewich RJ, Miller NE, Craigmyle N, Pickering TG (1979) Baroreceptor activation reduces reactivity to noxious stimulation: Implications for hypertension. Science 205:1299–1301
Eckberg DL, Cavanaugh MS, Mark AL, Abboud FM (1975) A simplified neck suction device for activation of carotid baroreceptors. J Lab Clin Med 85:167–173
Elbert T, Lutzenberger W, Rockstroh B, Kessler M, Pietrowsky R, Birbaumer N (1988) Baroreceptor stimulation increases pain threshold in borderline hypertensives. Psychophysiology 25:25–29
Franz IW (1986) Ergometry in hypertensive patients. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Furedy J, Rau H, Roberts L (1992) Physiological and psychological differentiation of bidirectional baroreceptor carotid manipulation in humans. Biol Psychol (in press)
Gellhorn E, Yesinick L, Kessler M, Hailman H (1942) Carotid sinus reflexes and convulsions. Am J Physiol 137:396–403
Koch EB (1932) Die Irradiation der pressorezeptorischen Kreislaufreflexe. Klin Wochenschr 2:225–227
Larbig W, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Lutzenberger W, Birbaumer N (1985) Elevated blood pressure and reduction of pain sensitivity. In: Orlebeke F, Mulder G, van Doornen JP (eds) Psychophysiology of cardiovascular control. Plenum Press, New York, pp 113–122
Mancia G (1983) Reflex control of circulation in normotensive and hypertensive humans. In: Ganten D, Pfaff D (eds) Central cardiovascular control. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 63–86
Mangan GL, Golding J (1978) An “enhancement” model of smoking maintenance? In: Thornton RE (ed) Smoking behavior: physiological and psychological influences. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp 87–114
Miltner W, Larbig W, Braun C (1988) Biofeedback of somatosensory event related potentials; Can individual pain sensations be modified by self-control of event-related potentials? Pain 35:205–213
Pickert A, Pickert C, Eggstein M, Birbaumer N (1992) Comparison of an automated version of the “König”-reaction and a fluorescence polarisation immunoassay for the determination of nicotine metabolites in urine. Clin Chem (in press)
Rau H, Elbert T, Lutzenberger W, Eves F, Rockstroh B, Larbig W, Birbaumer N (1988) Pavlovian conditioning of peripheral and central components of the baroreceptor reflex. J Psychophysiol 2:119–127
Rau H (1989) Beispiele kardiovaskulär-zentralnervöser Interaktionen. Peter Lang, Frankfurt
Rau H, Elbert T, Birbaumer N (1992) Baroreceptor activity and nociception. In: Vaitl D, Schandry R (eds) Interoception and cardiovascular processes. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Rau H, Elbert T, Geiger B, Lutzenberger W (1992) PRES: the controlled noninvasive stimulation of the carotid baroreceptors in humans. Psychophysiol 29:165–172
Zamir N, Shuber E (1980) Altered pain perception in hypertensive humans. Brain Res 201:471–474
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
The research reported in this paper was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (E1101/3) and by Reemtsma GmbH, Hamburg, Germany.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rau, H., Schweizer, R., Zhuang, P. et al. Cigarette smoking, blood lipids, and baroreceptor-modulated nociception. Psychopharmacology 110, 337–341 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02251290
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02251290