Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

2. The role of plant growth regulators in promotion of flowering

  • Published:
Plant Growth Regulation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research on flowering in forest trees has pursued two main objectives: 1) developing methods for stimulating flowering of selected genotypes to accelerate progeny testing, and 2) hastening the production of genetically-improved seeds in seed orchards. Cultural techniques have been used to some extent in the past for these purposes, but the use of plant-growth regulators (PGRs), particularly the gibberellins (GAs), has been increasingly successful. GAs have been shown to induce flowering in most conifers, but GA application on an operational basis has been worked out for only a few species. GAs have been applied effectively by topical treatment, by stem or branch injections, and by foliar sprays. The timing and concentration of applied chemicals are important and vary from species to species. Another PGR, naphthalene-acetic acid, is synergistic with GAs in some species. Adjunct cultural treatments are often used in combination with treatment with GAs. The success of treatment with GAs is determined to some extent upon the stage of development of the treated plants. The endogenous PGRs regulating flowering are not completely known but it appears that the GAs, the cytokinins, and bascisic acid may all be changed by treatments which induce flowering. Improved techniques becoming available for measuring PGRs are beginning to stimulate research on the endogenous PGRs. The PGRs will continue to play a major role in stimulating flowering in forest trees.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Abeles FB (1973) Ethylene in plant biology, 302 p. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bleymüller M (1976) Investigations on the dependence of flowering in spruce [Picea abies (L).Karst] upon age and hormone treatment. Silvae Genet 25: 83–85

    Google Scholar 

  3. Bonnet-Masimbert M (1971) Induction florale précoce chez Cupressus arizonica et Chamaecyparis lawsoniana. Silvae Genet 20: 82–90

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bonnet-Masimbert M (1982a) Effect of growth regulators, girdling and mulch on flowering of young European and Japanese larches under field conditions. Can J For Res 12: 270–279

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bonnet-Masimbert M (1982b) Influence de l'état d'activité des racines sur la floraison induite par des gibbérellines 4 et 7 chez Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco. Silvae Genet 31: 178–182

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bonnet-Masimbert M (1983) Stimulation de la floraison chez les coniféres: perspectives offertes par l'utilisation des régulateurs de croissance. Coll COLUMA “Les substances de croissance et leurs utilisations en agriculture’ Paris, ed. ACTA. Paris, t.2:480–486

  7. Bonnet-Masimbert M (1986) Preliminary results on gibberellin induction of flowering of seedlings and cuttings of Norway spruce indicate some carry-over effects. In: For Ecol Manage, IUFRO Symposium on Flowering and Seed Bearing in Forest Seed Orchards, Kornik, Poland, Sept, 1985 (in press)

  8. Bower RC and Ross SD (1985) Evaluation of ULV sprays for seed orchard application of GA4/7. In: 20th Mtg Can Tree Improvement Assoc Proc, Part 2, 19–22 Aug, Laval, Quebec, Ottawa, Ont. Can Forest Service (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Brix M and Portlock FT (1982) Flowering response of western hemlock seedlings to gibberellin and water-stress treatments. Can J For Res 12: 76–82

    Google Scholar 

  10. Cecich RA (1981) Applied gibberellin A4/7 increases ovulate strobili production in accelerated growth Jack pine seedlings. Can J For Res 11: 580–585

    Google Scholar 

  11. Cecich RA (1983) Flowering in a Jack pine seedling seed orchard increased by spraying with gibberellin A4/7. Can J For Res 13: 1056–1062

    Google Scholar 

  12. Cecich RA (1985) White spruce (Picea glauca) flowering in response to spray application of gibberellin A4/7. Can J For Res 15: 170–173

    Google Scholar 

  13. Chalupka W (1979) Effect of growth regulators on flowering of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L) Karst] grafts. Silvae Genet 28: 125

    Google Scholar 

  14. Chalupka W (1978) Effect of growth regulators on the flowering of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L) grafts. Silvae Genet 27: 62–65

    Google Scholar 

  15. Chalupka W and Giertych M (1977) The effect of polyethylene covers on the flowering of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L) Karst] grafts. Arbor Kornickie 22: 185–192

    Google Scholar 

  16. Chalupka W, Giertych M and Kopcewicz J (1982) Effect of polyethylene covers, a flower inducing treatment, on the contents of endogenous gibberellin-like substances in grafts of Norway spruce. Physiol Plant 54: 79–82

    Google Scholar 

  17. Chrispeels MJ and Varner JE (1967) Hormonal control of enzyme synthesis: on mode of action of gibberellic acid and abscisin in aleurone layers of barley. Plant Physiol 42: 1008–1016

    Google Scholar 

  18. Crozier A and Reid DM (1970) Gibberellin metabolism in the roots of Phaseolus coccineus seedlings. In: Carr DJ, ed. Plant Growth Substances, pp. 414–419. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag

    Google Scholar 

  19. Crozier A and Reid DM (1971) Do roots synthetize gibberellins? Can J Bot 49: 967–975

    Google Scholar 

  20. Doumas P, Morris JW, Chien C, Bonnet-Masimbert M and Zaerr JB (1986) A possible relationship between a cytokinin conjugate and flowering in Douglas-fir. In: 9th North American Forest Biology Workshop, June 1986, Oklahoma State Univ, Stillwater

    Google Scholar 

  21. Dunberg A (1980) Stimulation of flowering in Picea abies by gibberellins. Silvae Genet 29: 51–53

    Google Scholar 

  22. Dunberg A, Malmerg G, Sassa T and Pharis RP (1983) Metabolism of tritiated gibberellin A 4 and A 9 in Norway spruce, Picea abies (L) Karst. Effects of a cultural treatment known to enhance flowering. Plant Physiol 71: 257–262

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ebell LF (1971) Girdling: its effect on carbohydrate status and on reproductive bud and cone development in Douglas-fir. Can J Bot 49: 453–466

    Google Scholar 

  24. Ebell LF and McMullan EE (1970) Nitrogenous substances associated with differential cone production responses in Douglas-fir to ammonium and nitrate fertilization. Can J Bot 48: 2169–2177

    Google Scholar 

  25. Galoch E (1985) Comparison of the content of growth regulators in juvenile and adult plants of birch (Betula verrucosa Ehrh). Acta Physiologiae Plant 7(4): 205–215

    Google Scholar 

  26. Greenwood MS (1978) Flower stimulation techniques for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L). In: Proc Third World Consult For Tree Breeding, March, 1977, Vol II, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia, pp. 1031–1042

    Google Scholar 

  27. Greenwood MS (1981) Reproductive development in loblolly pine. II. The effect of age, gibberellin plus water stress and out-of-phase dormancy on long shoot growth behavior. Am J Bot 68: 1184–1190

    Google Scholar 

  28. Greenwood MS (1982) Rate, timing and mode of gibberellin application for female strobilus production by grafted loblolly pine. Can J For Res 12: 998–1102

    Google Scholar 

  29. Hashizume H (1967) Experimental induction of female flowers in young Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis Gordon). Nippon Rin Gakkaishi 49: 405–508

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hashizume H (1975) Interrelationship of gibberellin and ethrel in the flower bud formation and growth of conifers. Bull Tottori Univ For 8: 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  31. Ivonis IYu, Kyalina LV, Litvinova VB and Khokhlina EV (1982) Annual dynamics of gibberellin-like substances in needles of Norway spruce clone of different sexes. Soviet Plant Physiol 28: 915–920. [transl from Fiziologiya Rastenii 28(1981): 1258–1265]

    Google Scholar 

  32. Jackson DI and Sweet GB (1972) Flower initiation in temperate woody plants. Hortic Abstr 42: 9–24

    Google Scholar 

  33. Kanekawa T and Katsuta M (1982) Promotion of strobilus production in Pinus thunbergii Parl and P densiflora Sieb et Zucc by gibberellins. J Jap For Soc 64: 101–106

    Google Scholar 

  34. Kato Y, Miyake I and Ishikawa H (1958) Initiation of flower bud by gibberellin in Cryptomeria japonica. J Jap For Soc 40: 35–36

    Google Scholar 

  35. Kosinski G and Giertych M (1982) Light conditions inside developing buds affect floral induction. Planta 155: 93–94

    Google Scholar 

  36. Kulikowska HJ, Kopcewicz J, Zatorska Z and Szczesniak T (1978) Auxin and gibberellins in embryonic shoots of Scots pine in relation to flower sex differentiation. Acta Soc Bot Pol 47: 403–409

    Google Scholar 

  37. Lallier N (1982) Induction florale chez les coniféres: étude des 092 interactions entre activité racinaire, croissance aérienne et initiation florale chez Pseudotsuga menziesii. DEA Université d'Orléans. Doc Stat Amélioration INRA, Ardon, 45160, Olivet, France, 41 p.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Lee KJ, Park JI, Lee JS and Lee SK (1982) Effects of gibberellin 4/7 on carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism in Pinus koraiensis and Larix leptolepis during the period of floral bud initiation. Res Rep Inst For Genet Korea 18: 54–59

    Google Scholar 

  39. Leroux B, Maldiney R, Miginiac E, Sossountzov L and Sotta B (1985) Comparative quantitation of abscisic acid in plant extracts by GLC and ELISA method using the avidin-biotin system. Planta 166: 524–529

    Google Scholar 

  40. Longman KA (1970) Initiation of flowering on first year cuttings of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and Cheng. Nature, Lond 227: 299–300

    Google Scholar 

  41. Longman KA (1976) Some experimental approaches to the problem of phase change in forest trees. Acta Hortic 56: 81–90

    Google Scholar 

  42. Longman KA (1978) Control of flowering for forest tree improvement and seed production. Sci Hortic 30: 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  43. Longman KA (1983) Effects of gibberellin, clone and environment on cone initiation, shoot growth and branching in Pinus contorta. Ann Bot 50: 247–257

    Google Scholar 

  44. Longman KA (1985) Variability in flower initiation in forest trees. In: Cannel MGR and Jackson JE, eds. Trees as Crop Plants. Inst Terrestrial Ecol, NERC pp. 398–408

  45. Longman KA, Dick J and Page CN (1982) Cone induction with gibberellin for Taxonomic studies in Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae. Biol Plant 24: 3, 195–201

    Google Scholar 

  46. Longman KA, Dick JMcP, Mugglestone M and Smith SJ (1986) Effect of gibberellin A4+7 and bark-ringing on cone initiation in mature Picea sitchensis grafts. Tree Physiology 1: 101–113

    Google Scholar 

  47. Longman KA and Manurung R (1982) Manipulation of cone formation in the Cupressaceae. Ann Rep Inst Terr Ecol 1981: 67–69

    Google Scholar 

  48. Luukkanen O (1979) Hormonal treatment increases flowering in Norway spruce grafts grown in a plastic greenhouse. Finnish Found For Tree Breeding Ann Rep, pp. 20–26

  49. Luukkanen O (1981) Effect of gibberellins A4 and A7 on flowering in Scots pine grafts. Silvae Fenn 15: 359–365

    Google Scholar 

  50. Luukkanen O and Johansson S (1980) Effect of exogenous gibberellins on flowering in Pinus sylvestris L grafts. Physiol Plant 50: 365–370

    Google Scholar 

  51. Maldiney R, Leroux B, Sabbagh I, Sotta B, Sossountzov L and Miginiac E (1985) Enzyme immunoassay for the quantitation of three phytohormones: auxin, abscisic acid and zeatin-riboside using a avidin biotin system. Jour of Immunological Methods (in press)

  52. Marquard RD and Hanover JW (1984a) Sexual zonation in the crown of Picea glauca and flowering response to exogenous GA4/7. Can J For Res 14: 27–30

    Google Scholar 

  53. Marquard R and Hanover J (1984b) Relationship between gibberellin A4/7 concentration, time of treatment and crown position on flowering of Picea glauca. Can J For Res 14: 547–553

    Google Scholar 

  54. McDonald EMS and Morris RO (1985) Isolation of cytokinins by immunoaffinity chromatography and analysis by high performance liquid chromatography-radioimmunoassay. Method in Enzymol 110: 347–358

    Google Scholar 

  55. McMullan EE (1980) Effect of applied growth regulators on cone production in Douglas-fir, and relation of endogenous growth regulators in cone production capacity. Can J For Res 10: 405–422

    Google Scholar 

  56. Menyailo LN and Shul'gina GC (1978) Effect of swamp drainage on hormonal metabolism of scots pine. Sov J Plant Physiol 25: 1, 94–98

    Google Scholar 

  57. Nagao A (1981) Effects of spectral compositions on flower bud formation in Cryptomeria japonica under different temperature conditions. J Jap For Soc 63 (10): 367–371

    Google Scholar 

  58. Nagao A (1983a) Effects of different light spectral composition on floral initiation in Chamaecyparis obtusa seedlings under various temperature conditions. J Jap For Soc 65 (7): 233–236

    Google Scholar 

  59. Nagao A (1983b) Differences of flower initiation of Cryptomeria japonica under various alternating temperatures. J Jap For Soc 65 (9): 335–338

    Google Scholar 

  60. Owens JN and Molder M (1977) Cone induction in yellow cypress (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) by gibberellin A3 and the subsequent development of seeds within the induced cones. Can J For Res 7: 605–613

    Google Scholar 

  61. Owens JN and Molder M (1979) The times and patterns of cone differentiation in North American conifers. In: Bonner FT and Starkville MS, eds. Proc Symp Flowering and Seed Development in Trees. USDA Forest Service, Southern For Exp Stn, pp. 25–32

  62. Owens JN, Webber JE, Ross SD and Pharis RP (1985) Interaction between gibberellin A4/7 and root pruning on the reproductive and vegetative processes in Douglas-fir. III. Effect on anatomy of shoot elongation and terminal bud development. Can J For Res 15: 2, 354–364

    Google Scholar 

  63. Owens JN, Webber JE, Ross SD and Pharis RP (1986) Interaction between gibberellin A4/7 and root pruning on the reproductive and vegetative processes in Douglas-fir. IV. Effect on lateral bud development. Can J For Res 16: 2, 211–221

    Google Scholar 

  64. Pharis RP (1975) Promotion of flowering in conifers by gibberellins. For Chron 51: 244–248

    Google Scholar 

  65. Pharis RP (1977) Interaction of native and endogenous plant hormones in the flowering of woody plants. In: Schutte HR and Gross D, eds. Proc. Conf. Regulation of Developmental Processes in Plants. Halle, Academy of Sciences pp. 343–360.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Pharis RP, King RW (1985) Gibberellin and reproductive development in seed plants. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 36: 517–568

    Google Scholar 

  67. Pharis RP and Kuo CG (1977) Physiology of gibberellins in conifers. Can J For Res 7: 299–325

    Google Scholar 

  68. Pharis RP and Morf W (1967) Experiments on the precocious flowering of western red cedar and four species of Cupressus with gibberellin A3 and A4/7 mixture. Can J Bot 65: 1519–1524

    Google Scholar 

  69. Pharis RP and Ross SD (1976) Gibberellins: their potential uses in forestry. Outlook on Agric 9: 82–87

    Google Scholar 

  70. Pharis RP and Ross SD (1986) Hormonal promotion of flowering in the Pinaceae family conifers. In: Halevy A, ed. Handbook of flowering, vol 5. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  71. Pharis RP and Ross SD (1986) Flowering of pinaceae family conifers with gibberellin A4/7 mixture: how to accomplish it, mechanisms and integration with early progeny testing. In: Proc Conifer Tree Seed in the Inland Mountain West Symposium, Aug 5–6, 1985, Missoula, Mont. USDA/USFS Intermountain Res Sta. Ogden, Utah 84401. Gen Tech Rpt INT-203, April, 1986 pp. 171–179

    Google Scholar 

  72. Pharis RP, Ross SD and McMullan EE (1980) Promotion of flowering in the Pinaceae by gibberellins. III. Seedlings of Douglas-fir. Physiol Plant 50: 119–126

    Google Scholar 

  73. Pharis RP, Ruddat M, Phillips CC and Heftmann E (1965) Precocious flowering of Arizona cypress with gibberellin. Can J Bot 43: 923–927

    Google Scholar 

  74. Pharis RP, Tomchuk D, Aeail FD, Rauther RM and Kiss G (1986) Promotion of flowering in white spruce (Picea glauca) by gibberellin A4/7 alone, and with auxin (naphthaleneacetic acid), girdling, and Ca(NO3)2 as adjunct cultural treatments. Can J For Res 16: 340–345

    Google Scholar 

  75. Pharis RP, Wample RL and Kamienska A (1975) Growth, development and sexual differentiation in Pinus with emphasis on the role of the plant hormone, gibberellin. In: Baumgartner DM, ed. Management of Lodgepole Pine Ecosystems, pp. 106–134. Pullman, WA

  76. Pharis RP, Webber JE and Ross SD (1986) The promotion of flowering in forest trees by gibberellin A4/7 and cultural treatments: a review of the possible mechanisms. For Ecol Manage, IUFRO Symposium on Flowering and Seed Bearing in Forest Seed Orchards, Kornik, Poland, Sept, 1985 (in press)

  77. Philipson JJ (1983) The role of gibberellin A4/7, heat and drought in the induction of flowering in Sitka spruce. J Exp Bot 34: 291–302

    Google Scholar 

  78. Philipson JJ (1985a) The promotion of flowering in large field-grown Sitka spruce by girdling and stem injections of gibberellin A4/7. Can J For Res 15: 166–170

    Google Scholar 

  79. Philipson JJ (1985b) The effect of top pruning, girdling and gibberellin A4/7 application on the production and distribution of pollen and seed cones in Sitka spruce. Can J For Res (submitted)

  80. Pollard DFW and Portlock FT (1981) Effects of temperature on strobilus production in gibberellin-treated seedlings of western hemlock. Can For Serv Res Notes 1: 21–22

    Google Scholar 

  81. Pollard DPW and Portlock FT (1984) The effect of photoperiod and temperature on gibberellin A4/7 induced strobili production of Western Hemlock. Can J For Res 14: 291–294

    Google Scholar 

  82. Puritch G (1972) Cone production in conifers. A review of the literature and evaluation of research needs (with an economic analysis by AH Vyse). In Pacific For Res Centre/Can For Service Infor Rep BC-X. 65, 94 pp. Victoria, BC

  83. Puritch GA, McMullan EE, Meagher MD and Simmons CS (1979) Hormonal enhancement of cone production in Douglas-fir grafts and seedlings. Can J For Res 9: 193–200

    Google Scholar 

  84. Reid DM, Crozier A and Harvey BRM (1969) The effect of flooding on the export of gibberellins from the root to the shoot. Planta 89: 376–379

    Google Scholar 

  85. Remrod J (1976) An experiment on flower-induction with Ethrel-Breeding Norway Spruce. Bogesund, pp. 203–205

  86. Ross SD (1976) Differential flowering responses by young Douglas-fir grafts and equisized seedlings to gibberellins and auxin. Acta Hort 56: 163–167

    Google Scholar 

  87. Ross SD (1978) Influences of gibberellins and cultural practices on early flowering of Douglas-fir seedlings and grafts. In: Proc Third World Consult. For. Tree Breeding, March 1977, Vol 2, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia, pp. 997–1107

    Google Scholar 

  88. Ross SD (1979) Evaluation of foliar spray formulations for seed orchard application of gibberellins. Weyerhaeuser Forestry Res Tech Rep 042-3001/79/10, pp. 1–12

  89. Ross SD (1983) Enhancement of shoot elongation in Douglas-fir by gibberellin A4/7 and its relation to the hormonal promotion of flowering. Can J For Res 13: 986–994

    Google Scholar 

  90. Ross SD (1985) Promotion of flowering in potted Picea engelmannii (Perry) grafts: effect of heat, drought, gibberellin A4/7 and their timing. Can J For Res 15: 4, 618–624

    Google Scholar 

  91. Ross SD, Aollmann MP, Pharis RP and Sweet GB (1984) Gibberellin A4/7 and the promotion of flowering in Pinus radiata. Effect on partitioning of photoassimilate within the bud during primordia differentiation. Plant Physiol 76: 326–330

    Google Scholar 

  92. Ross SD, Eastham AM and Bower RC (1985) Potential for container seed orchards. In: Shearer RS, ed. Proc—Conifer Tree Seed in the Inland Mtn. West Symposium, Missoula, Montana, pp. 180–186. USDA For Serv

  93. Ross SD and Greenwood MS (1979) Promotion of flowering in the Pinaceae by gibberellins. II. Grafts of sexually mature and immature Pinus taeda L. Physiol Plant 45: 207–210

    Google Scholar 

  94. Ross SD and Pharis RP (1976) Promotion of flowering in the Pinaceae by gibberellins. I. Sexually mature, non-flowering grafts of Douglas-fir. Physiol Plant 36: 182–186

    Google Scholar 

  95. Ross SD and Pharis RP (1985) Promotion of flowering in tree crops: different mechanisms and techniques, with special reference to conifers. In: Cannel MGR and Jackson JE, ed. Trees as crop plants. Inst Terrestrial Ecol, NERC, pp. 383–397

  96. Ross SD, Pharis RP and Heaman JC (1980) Promotion of cone and seed production in grafted and seedling Douglas-fir seed orchards by application of gibberellin A4/7 mixture. Can J For Res 10: 464–469

    Google Scholar 

  97. Ross SD, Piesch RF and Portlock FI (1980) Promotion of cone and seed production in rooted ramets and seedlings of western hemlock by gibberellins and adjunct cultural treatments. Can J For Res 11: 90–98

    Google Scholar 

  98. Ross SD, Webber JE, Pharis RP and Owens JN (1985) Interaction between gibberellin A4/7 and root pruning on the reproductive and egetative process in Douglas-fir. I. Effects on flowering. Can J For Res 15: 341–347

    Google Scholar 

  99. Sato K (1963) Some physiological actions of gibberellins on forest trees. FAO World Consultation For Genet Stockholm. No FAO/FORGEN 63/5-2:1–11

  100. Skene KGM (1975) Cytokinin production by roots as a factor in the control of plant growth. In: Torrey JG and Clarkson DT, eds. The development and function of roots, pp. 365–396. London, New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  101. Sotta B, Sossountzov L, Maldiney R, Sabbagh I, Tachon P and Miginiac E (1985) Abscisic acid localization by light microscopic immunohistochemistry in Chenopodium polyspermum L. J Histochem Cytochem 33: 201–208

    Google Scholar 

  102. Sweet GB (1979) A physiological study of seed cone production in Pinus radiata. NZ J For Sci 9: 20–33

    Google Scholar 

  103. Tompsett PB (1977) Studies of growth and flowering in Picea sitchensis (Bong) Carr. I. Effect of growth regulator applications to mature scions on seedling rootstocks. Ann Bot 41: 1171–1178

    Google Scholar 

  104. Tompsett PB and Fletcher AM (1977) Increased flowering of Sitka spruce [Picea sitchensis (Bong) Carr] in a polythene house. Silvae Genet 26: 84–86

    Google Scholar 

  105. Torrey JG (1976) Root hormones and plant growth. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 27: 435–459

    Google Scholar 

  106. Walton DC (1980) Biochemistry and physiology of abscisic acid. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 31: 453–489

    Google Scholar 

  107. Wample RL, Durley RC and Pharis RP (1975) Metabolism of gibberellin A4 by vegetative shoots of Douglas-fir at three stages of ontogeny. Physiol Plant 35: 273–278

    Google Scholar 

  108. Webber JE, Laver ML, Zupaerr JB and Lavender DP (1979) Seasonal variation of abscisic acid in dormant shoots of Douglas-fir. Can J Bot 57: 534–538

    Google Scholar 

  109. Webber JE, Ross SD, Pharis RP and Owens JN (1985) Interaction between gibberellin A4/7 and root pruning on the reproductive and vegetative process in Douglas-fir. II. Effects on shoot growth. Can J For Res 15: 348–353

    Google Scholar 

  110. Wesoly W (1985) Effect of girdling on flowering and on levels of endogenous growth regulators in embryonic shoots of scots, pine grafts (Pinus silvestris L). Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 7: 4, 171–179

    Google Scholar 

  111. Wheeler NC, Wample RL and Pharis RP (1980) Promotion of flowering in the Pinaceae by gibberellins. IV. Seedlings and sexually mature grafts of lodgepole pine. Physiol Plant 50: 340–346

    Google Scholar 

  112. Yoshii H and Imaseki H (1981) Biosynthesis of auxin induced ethylene: effects of indol-3-acetic acid, benzyl-adenine and abscisic acid on endogenous levels of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and ACC synthase. Plant Cell Physiol 22: 369–379

    Google Scholar 

  113. Zaerr JB and Bonnet-Masimbert M (1986) Cytokinin level and flowering in Douglas-fir. In: For Ecol Manage, IUFRO Symposium on Flowering and Seed Bearing in Forest Seed Orchards, Kornik, Poland, Sept, 1986 (in press)

  114. Zavala ME and Arandon DL (1983) Localization of a phytohormone using immunocytochemistry. J Cell Biol 97: 1235–1239

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. I.N.R.A. Station d'Amelioration des Arbres Forestiers, Centre de Recherches d'Orleans, Ardon, 45160, Olivet, France

    M. Bonnet-Masimbert & J. B. Zaerr (Professor)

Authors
  1. M. Bonnet-Masimbert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. B. Zaerr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bonnet-Masimbert, M., Zaerr, J.B. 2. The role of plant growth regulators in promotion of flowering. Plant Growth Regul 6, 13–35 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00043948

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00043948

Keywords

Search

Navigation