Rapid and uniform electromagnetic heating of aqueous cryoprotectant solutions from cryogenic temperatures

Abstract

Devitrification (ice formation during warming) is one of the primary obstacles to successful organ vitrification (solidification without ice formation). The only feasible approach to overcoming either devitrification or its damaging effects in a large organ appears at present to be the use of some form of electromagnetic heating (EH) to achieve the required high heating rates. One complication of EH in this application is the need for warming within a steel pressure vessel. We have previously reported that resonant radiofrequency (RF) helical coils provide very uniform heating at ambient temperatures and low heating rates and can be modified for coaxial power transmission, which is necessary if only one cable is to penetrate through the wall of the pressure vessel. We now report our initial studies using a modified helical coil, high RF input power, and cryogenic aqueous cryoprotectant solutions [60% ($\text{w}\text{v}$) solution of 4.37 M dimethylsulfoxide and 4.37 M acetamide in water and 50% ($\text{w}\text{w}$) 1,2-propanediol]. We also describe the electronic equipment required for this type of research. Temperatures were monitored during high-power conditions with Luxtron fiberoptic probes. Thermometry was complicated by the use of catheters needed for probe insertion and guidance. The highest heating rates we observed using catheters occurred at temperatures ranging from about −70 to −40 °C, the temperature zone where devitrification usually appears in unstable solutions during slow warming. We find that in this range we can achieve measured heating rates of approximately 300 °C/min in 30- to 130-ml samples using 200 to 700 W of RF power without overheating the sample at any point. However, energy conservation calculations imply that our measured peak heating rates may be considerably higher than the true heating rates occurring in the bulk of our solutions. We were able to estimate the overall true heating rates, obtaining an average value of about 20 °C/min/100 $\text{W}\text{100}$ ml, which implies a heating efficiency close to 100%. It appears that it should be possible to warm vitrified rabbit kidneys rapidly enough under high-pressure conditions to protect them from devitrification.