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  • 1
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    Psychophysical Evaluation of Feedback Phenomena as Related to Precision of Force Emission: Some Methodological Considerations (1969)
    Urbana, etc. : Periodicals Archive Online (PAO)
    American Journal of Psychology. 82:2 (1969:June) 266 
    Details
    ISSN: 0002-9556
    Topics: Psychology
    Notes: NOTES AND DISCUSSION
    URL: http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pao:&rft_dat=xri:pao:article:1016-1969-082-02-000015
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Similarity of clozapine's and olanzapine's acute effects on rats' lapping behavior (1996)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 123 (1996), S. 374-378 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Clozapine ; Olanzapine ; Rat ; Lapping behavior
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract As a way of further comparing the behavioral effects of clozapine and olanzapine, dose ranges of these drugs were studied in a task emphasizing fine motor detail of rats' tongue movements during lapping behavior. Rats lapped drops of tap water from a force-sensing disk. From this behavior four variables were derived: peakforce of tongue strikes, duration of tongue contact, number of separate tongue contacts in 2 min, and the rhythm of the lapping behavior as quantified by Fourier analysis. Both clozapine (0.5–4.0 mg/kg, IP, 45 min) and olanzapine (0.25–2.0 mg/kg, IP, 45 min) dose dependently reduced all four measures of behavior. With respect to lick rhythm, a behavioral marker which clearly distinguishes haloperidol from clozapine in this behavioral paradigm, olanzapine was about twice as potent as clozapine, with the two drugs having parallel dose-effect functions. Within-session decrements in behavior previously reported for haloperidol in the lick task were not produced by clozapine nor by olanzapine. Taken together, these data strengthen the idea that the behavioral effects of clozapine and olanzapine are strikingly similar, and thereby emphasize the potential of olanzapine as an atypical antipsychotic agent.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02246648
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Acute and subchronic effects of clozapine on licking in rats: tolerance to disruptive effects on number of licks, but no tolerance to rhythm slowing (1995)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 120 (1995), S. 249-255 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Clozapine ; Ritanserin ; Atypical neuroleptic ; Lick rhythm ; Oscillator slowing ; Rat
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract In order to assess the effects of the atypical neuroleptic clozapine on orolingual competence in rats, tongue function was measured by quantitating the rhythm of tongue movements after acute (1.0, 3.0, 6.0 mg/kg) or subchronic intraperitoneal treatment (1.5, 3.0, 4.5 mg/kg, each dose for at least 7 days) with the drug. Thirsty rats were trained to lick water from a force-sensing disk by thrusting the tongue through a 12-mm-diameter hole to strike the horizontal disk located 5 mm below the hole. Number of licks in 2 min and rhythm of tongue movements (as determined by Fourier analysis of the force-time signal) were each dose dependently reduced in the acute dose-effect phase of the study. In the subchronic study number of licks exhibited tolerance, but the slowing of lick rhythm did not show tolerance. An acute dose range of the serotonin antagonist ritanserin (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mg/kg) was also studied in the same rats. Ritanserin had no effect on any of the measures of orolingual function. The clozapine result was replicated in a second study using younger, drug naive rats. The results for clozapine were contrasted with previous reports indicating that haloperidol has little effect on lick rhythm. Additional discussion evaluated the possible contribution of neurotransmitter receptors on motor neurons of the hypoglossal nucleus to the observed rhythm slowing induced by clozapine.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02311171
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Haloperidol, raclopride, and eticlopride induce microcatalepsy during operant performance in rats, but clozapine and SCH 23390 do not (1998)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 140 (1998), S. 81-90 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Key words Neuroleptics ; Dopamine receptor ; Catalepsy ; EPS ; Antipsychotic drug ; Rat
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract  The purpose of this work was (1) to assess the ability of selected antipsychotic and comparison drugs to induce arrest of movement phenomena during operant responding and (2) to evaluate the capacity of muscarinic anitcholinergics to block such effects. The effects of haloperidol (0.02–0.12 mg/kg, IP, 45 min), raclopride (0.05–0.80 mg/kg, IP, 30 min) eticlopride (0.02–0.16 mg/kg, IP, 45 min), clozapine (1.0–8.0 mg/kg, IP, 60 min) and SCH 23390 (0.01–0.16 mg/kg, IP, 30 min) were administered to rats for 4 weeks in a between-groups dosing design. Operant responses in 15 min and the maximum duration of the rat’s muzzle entry into the reinforcement dipper well (the measure of arrest of movement that reflected microcatalepsy) were the quantitative measures of behavior. The D2 antagonists dose-relatedly decreased operant responding and increased maximum muzzle duration, effects that were significantly reversed by the anticholinergic scopolamine (0.1 mg/kg) or atropine (6.0 mg/kg). Although the atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine and the selective D1 antagonist SCH 23390 both significantly reduced operant responding, these drugs did not produce microcatalepsy. The results suggested that microcatalepsy expressed in the context of ongoing operant behavior may model low-dose extrapyramidal side effects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050742
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Similarities and differences between the subchronic and withdrawal effects of clozapine and olanzapine on forelimb force steadiness (1997)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 132 (1997), S. 408-414 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Key words Clozapine ; Olanzapine ; Quipazine ; Trihexyphenidyl ; Subchronic ; Tolerance ; Forelimb ; Force ; Tremor ; Neuroleptics ; Atypical ; Antipsychotic
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract  The purpose of this study was to compare the subchronic, low-dose effects of clozapine with those of olanzapine in a learned behavioral task previously shown to distinguish between clozapine and haloperidol with acute and subchronic treatment regimes. Rats were trained to use a single forelimb to press a force-recording operandum and simultaneously to lick water from a dipper that remained available while forelimb force exceeded a modest lower limit. Analysis of the resulting force-time recordings provided measures of task engagement (time on task – analogous to response rate), lick rhythm, tremor, ballistic (maximum force) and tonic (hold force) forelimb force measures, as well as the durations of the individual responses. In a between-groups dosing design, five separate groups of rats received vehicle, clozapine 1.0 or 5.0 mg/kg, olanzapine 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg daily for 27 days. A 7-day withdrawal period followed. On days 22 and 26 of antipsychotic drug treatment, all rats additionally received 0.3 mg/kg trihexyphenidyl or 1.0 mg/kg quipazine, respectively. The effects of olanzapine and clozapine were similar in that both drugs reduced time on task, increased response duration, and slowed lick rhythm. The two drugs differed in that clozapine reduced the force and tremor measures but olanzapine did not. Both tolerance and withdrawal effects, as reflected by the tremor measure, were observed for clozapine but not for olanzapine. Trihexyphenidyl further increased the duration of responses already lengthened by clozapine; in contrast, trihexyphenidyl decreased the duration lengthening effect of olanzapine. Taken together, the results indicated that olanzapine did not have the antitremor and hypotonic effects displayed by clozapine, and olanzapine did not induce tolerance and withdrawal phenomena as clozapine did.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050363
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Behavioral tolerance to the force differentiation effects of diazepam and midazolam in rats (2000)
    Springer
    Psychopharmacology 148 (2000), S. 327-335 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-2072
    Keywords: Key words Benzodiazepine ; Operant ; Force ; Tolerance ; Chronic ; Rat
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Medicine
    Notes: Abstract  Rationale: Several benzodiazepines (BZs) have been shown to increase the peak force of operant responses at doses that increased, decreased, or had no effect on response rate, suggesting that operant response force may be a sensitive index of BZs’ effects rather than solely a correlate of rate-dependent effects. In addition, contingent tolerance to the rate-dependent effects of BZs has been reported, but the degree of contingent tolerance that develops when the critical variable of the task is force of the response has not been explored. Objectives: These experiments examined the effects of acute and repeated oral administration of diazepam (DZ) and midazolam (MZ) on a force-differentiation task to explore the importance of task requirements on the development of contingent tolerance. Methods: Two groups of rats were trained to press a force-sensing operandum, and responses having peak forces falling within fixed lower and upper limits [low force (8–10 g) or high force (40–50 g)] were reinforced with water. Acute effects of the oral administration of DZ (0.3, 1.0, 3.0, 10.0, 30.0 mg/kg) and MZ (same doses) were determined for the discriminated-force task before and after a repeated-administration procedure. Results: When administered acutely, both drugs increased the peak force of responses in a dose-related manner and concomitantly reduced the proportion of reinforced responses, with MZ exhibiting greater potency. For the next 36 days, one group received drug before experimental sessions and the other group received drug after the experimental session. A second dose–effect determination demonstrated that rats chronically dosed with DZ or MZ pre-session displayed more contingent tolerance to alterations in peak force than rats that had received 36 drug injections post- session, where there was no opportunity to practice the force-discrimination response while under the drug state. Conclusions: These results suggest that perceptual motor difficulty of the task rather than effort may be an important variable in predicting the degree of contingent tolerance that develops. Additionally, these results suggest that both behavioral and pharmacological mechanisms are involved in the development of drug tolerance to the BZs.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050059
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