Library

Notes: Abstract: Major and minor pathways of metabolism in the mammalian CNS result in the formation of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylene glycol (MHPG) and normetane-phrine (NMN) from norepinephrine (NE), and homovanillic acid (HVA) and 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT) from dopamine (DA), respectively. The correlational relationships between HVA and 3-MT and between MHPG and NMN in primate CSF and plasma have not been described. These relationships may help to elucidate the usefulness of CSF and plasma metabolites as indices of CNS NE and DA activity. In addition, because NMN is unlikely to cross the blood-brain barrier, CSF NMN concentrations would not be confounded by contributions from plasma, which is a major issue with CSF MHPG. We have obtained repeated samples of plasma and CSF from drug-naive male squirrel monkeys and have measured the concentrations of MHPG, HVA, NMN, and 3-MT to define their correlational relationships. For the NE me-tabolites, significant correlations were obtained for CSF MHPG and NMN (r = 0.806, p 〈 0.001), plasma MHPG and CSF NMN (r= 0.753, p 〈 0.001), and plasma and CSF MHPG (r= 0.776, p〈 0.001). These results suggest that CSF and plasma MHPG and CSF NMN may reflect gross changes in whole brain steady-state noradrenergic metabolism. Only a single significant relationship was demonstrated for the DA metabolites, with CSF 3-MT correlating with plasma HVA (r= 0.301, p 〈 0.025). The results for the DA metabolites probably reflect regional differences in steady-state brain dopaminergic metabolism.

Notes: Abstract: Carboxypeptidase E (EC 3.4.17.10) is a carboxy-peptidase B-like enzyme associated with the biosynthesis of many peptide hormones and neurotransmitters. Media collected from cultured astrocytes contain a carboxypeptidase E-like activity. Cultured astrocytes secrete ∼73% of their cellular level of carboxypeptidase E per hour, and secretion is not substantially influenced by 35 mM KCI. In contrast, neurons secrete only 29% of their cellular carboxypeptidase E per hour, but secretion increases to 86% on stimulation with 35 mM KCI. Secretion of carboxypeptidase E activity from both neuronal and astrocyte cultures is relatively selective; neither acid phosphatase or acetylglucosaminidase is secreted in appreciable amounts. Cultured neurons and astrocytes express a carboxypeptidase E mRNA of a similar size. The levels of this mRNA differ in astrocytes cultured from different brain regions, with high levels in striatal, cortical, hippocampal, and hypothalamic astrocytes and low levels in cerebellar astrocytes. The level of carboxypeptidase E mRNA in hypothalamic astrocyte cultures is four- to fivefold higher than the level in hypothalamic neuronal cultures. These results indicate that cultured astrocytes express carboxypeptidase E mRNA and enzymatic activity and thus contain one of the enzymes required in the biosynthesis of many peptide hormones and neurotransmitters.

Notes: Abstract: An antagonistic effect of calcium on the action of morphine was studied in rat hippocampal slices. The effect of repeated administration of morphine on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release and binding of [3H]nitrendipine, a cal-cium antagonist, was also examined. (1) In rat brain hippocampal slices, morphine enlarged the amplitude of the field potentials evoked in pyramidal neurons, disinhibiting them through basket cells. When the calcium concentration was elevated, potentiation of the field potentials by morphine was reduced. Decrease of the calcium concentration, on the other hand, enhanced the potentiating effect of morphine. Following repeated administration of morphine, its enhancing effect on the field potentials in slices was not observed. (2) In hippocampal membrane fractions obtained from rats repeatedly treated with morphine, enhancement of [3H]nitrendipine binding was observed. (3) In hippocampal slice preparations from rats receiving morphine repeatedly, K+ (45 mM)-stim-ulated [3H]GABA efflux was enhanced. The above results indicate that morphine antagonizes calcium, thereby reducing the release of transmitters. Furthermore, increase in calcium channels following repeated treatment of rats with morphine may explain the mechanism underlying development of tolerance.

Notes: Abstract: This study examined the effects of extracellular ATP on norepinephrine (NE) uptake, using PC12 cells as a model of noradrenergic neurons. Previous experiments with syn-aptosomes led to the hypothesis that extracellular ATP can regulate NE uptake via an ecto-protein kinase. In the present study, we examined the high-affinity uptake of NE (referred to as uptake 1) in PC12 cells in the presence of varying concentrations of extracellular ATP. In the presence of Ca2+, low concentrations of ATP (0.1 μM) increased uptake 1 by approximately 36%. This increase could be mimicked by aden-osine-5′-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) tetralithium salt (ATPγS), an analogue of ATP which can be utilized by protein kinases, and not by 5′-adenylylimidodiphosphate tetralithium salt, a nonhydrolyzable analogue of ATP. GTP, ADP, and adenosine also had no effect on uptake 1. Preincubation of the cells with NE and ATPγS, followed by washing and assaying NE uptake 30 min later, resulted in a persistent increase in uptake 1. Similar pretreatment with ATP did not show this increase; however, simultaneous pretreatment with ATP and ATPγS blocked the activation produced by ATPyS alone. Kinetic analysis showed that ATPγS pretreatment produces an increase in the Vmax of uptake 1 without altering the apparent Km for NE. These results support the hypothesis that extracellular ATP can regulate NE uptake via an ecto-protein kinase.

Notes: Abstract: To investigate the effect of endogenous proteolysis on the molecular weights of the benzodiazepine binding proteins, brains of trout, chicken, and rat were removed immediately after death and stored at room temperature for various periods of time before they were frozen. Photoaffinity labeling of membranes with [3H]flunitrazepam, followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and fluorography, revealed proteolytic fragments of 47K in trout, chicken, and rat. The proteolysis set in rapidly after death. Seemingly in parallel with the degradation observed fluorographically, the affinity for [3H]flunitrazepam increased without systematic changes in receptor density. The degra dation pattern was not identical to that of the photolabeled trypsinized benzodiazepine binding proteins. The endogenous proteolytic fragments were deglycosylated in two steps. In conclusion, proteolytic effects must be taken into account when interpreting labeling patterns and binding parameters.

Notes: Abstract: Tachykinin immunoreactivity has been quantified and characterized in extracts of bovine retinae by combining radioimmunoassay, gel permeation chromatography, and reverse-phase HPLC. Using an antiserum specific for the C-terminal hexapeptide amide of substance P, levels of 3.43 ± 0.33 ng g−1 and 12.45 ± 0.76 ng g−1 (mean ± SD, n = 5) were measured in extracts prepared by acidified ethanol and boiling 0.5 M acetic acid, respectively. Levels of neurokinin A immunoreactivity, assayed using an antiserum cross-reacting with neurokinin A (100%), neurokinin B (50%), neuropeptide K (85%), and substance P (〈0.1%) were 12.46 ± 0.47 ng g−1 and 7.20 ± 0.37 ng g−1 in the same extracts. Gel permeation chromatography identified a single substance P immunoreactant eluting with substance P standard, whereas two neurokinin A immunoreactants were resolved eluting with neuropeptide K and neurokinin A standards. Reverse-phase HPLC analysis resolved immunoreactivity eluting with substance P, neurokinin A, neuropeptide K, and neurokinin B and their respective methionine sulphoxides. The amount of immunoreactive material co-eluting with the respective sulphoxides was higher in acidified ethanol extracts, and sub stance P was most susceptible to oxidative modification. Subsequent incubation of synthetic substance P with dispersed bovine retinal cells resulted in rapid conversion to three metabolites identified and isolated by reverse-phase HPLC. Each had an amino acid composition identical to that of substance P, and the major product had the same retention time as substance P sulphoxide. Deamidation was ruled out on the basis of the unequivocal demonstration of both glutamine residues and a methionine amide residue on each metabolite. These data demonstrate the presence of the mammalian tachykinins substance P, neurokinin A, neurokinin B, and neuropeptide K in the bovine retina. The susceptibility of substance P to methionine oxidation has been confirmed by incubation with dispersed retinal cells, and this putative inactivation system may be of physiological relevance within the retina.

Notes: Abstract: The σ-receptor, a distinct binding site in brain tissue that may mediate some of the psychotomimetic properties of benzomorphan opiates and phencyclidine, has been sol-ubilized using the ionic detergent sodium cholate. Binding assays were performed with the solubilized receptor using vacuum filtration over polyethyleneimine-treated glass fiber filters. The pharmacological specificity of the solubilized binding site for σ-receptor ligands is nearly identical to the membrane-bound form of the receptor, with the order of potencies for displacement of the selective σ-ligand [3H]di-o-tolylguanidine ([3H]DTG) closely correlated. The stereoselectivity for (+)-benzomorphan opiate enantiomers was retained by the solubilized receptor. The soluble receptor retained high affinity for binding of [3H]DTG (KD= 28 ± 0.5 nM) and (+)-[3H]3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-N-(l-propyl)piperi-dine {(+)-[3H]3-PPP} (KD= 36 ± 2 nM). Photoaffinity labeling of the solubilized receptor by [3H]p-azido-DTG, a σ-selective photoaffinity label, resulted in labeling of a 29-kilodalton polypeptide identical in size to that labeled in intact membranes. Estimation of the Stokes radius of the [3H]DTG binding site was obtained by Sepharose CL-6B chromatography in the presence of 20 mM cholate and calculated to be 8.7 nm. This value was identical to the molecular size found for the binding sites of the σ-selective ligands (+)-[3H]3-PPP and (+)-[3H]SKF-10,047, supporting the hypothesis that all three ligands bind to the same macro-molecular complex.

Notes: Abstract: A peptide corresponding to position 32-47 in tyrosine hydroxylase was synthesized (TH-16) and polyclonal antibodies against this peptide were raised in rabbits (anti-TH-16). The effects of anti-TH-16 on modulation of tyrosine hydroxylase activity were investigated. Anti-TH-16 enhanced the enzymatic activity in a concentration-dependent manner, and the antigen TH-16 inhibited the stimulatory activity of the antiserum in a concentration-dependent manner. The activated enzyme had a lower Kmapp for the cofactor 2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-methyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydropterin and a higher Vmax app than the nonactivated enzyme. Anti-TH-16 was characterized further by its ability to immunoprecipitate the enzyme activity by labeling tyrosine hydroxylase after Western blotting and by immunohistochemical labeling of cate-cholaminergic neurons. Anti-TH-16 did not block activation of tyrosine hydroxylase by phosphorylation catalyzed by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Exposure of the enzyme to anti-TH-16 and subsequent phosphorylation of the enzyme resulted in a greater activation of the enzyme than the sum of activation produced by these two treatments separately. However, the activation was less than additive when the enzyme was first phosphorylated and subsequently exposed to anti-TH-16. The present study demonstrates the utility of anti-TH-16 in investigating the molecular aspects of the enzyme activation.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: Basic Neurochemistry (Fourth Edition) edited by G. Siegel, B. Agranoff, R. W. Albers, and P. Molinoff. Affinity Labelling and Cloning of Steroid and Thyroid Hormone Receptors edited by H. Gronemeyer.

Notes: Abstract: Blood-brain barrier (BBB) function is endowed by the expression of unique proteins within the brain capillary endothelium. In the absence of knowing the function of BBB-specific proteins, one strategy for identification of these proteins is the purification and amino acid sequencing of proteins within the brain capillary that are not found in other cells. Earlier studies have shown that a 16-18K triplet of low-molecular-weight proteins in isolated brain capillaries is not found in either erythrocytes or in capillary-free preparations of synaptosomal proteins. Therefore, the present studies describe the purification of the 16-18K triplet of proteins as well as a 14K protein in isolated brain capillaries using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and C4 reverse-phase HPLC. Amino acid sequencing of the N-terminus of the 14K, 17K, and 18K proteins and of two tryptic peptides of the 16K protein showed that these proteins are α-globin, histone 2B, histone 3, and histone 2A, respectively. SDS-PAGE of subcellular fractions of bovine brain capillaries demonstrated that the 16-18K triplet of histone proteins migrated in the nuclear fraction. In addition, a 34K doublet and a 200K protein were localized in the nuclear pellet. Therefore, the present studies demonstrate that the predominant 14-18K proteins seen on SDS-PAGE of isolated brain capillaries are known proteins and provide a general scheme for purification of brain capillary proteins isolated following SDS-PAGE.

Notes: Abstract: Isolated rat brain capillaries were incubated in the presence of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) containing [stearic acid-14C, (methyI-3H)choline]sphmgomyelim. This double-labeled sphingomyelin was taken up in a concentration-dependent manner. Cerebral capillary-associated sphingomyelin had a 3H/14C ratio close to that of the incubation medium, a result indicating uptake of sphingomyelin without prior hydrolysis. TLC of lipid extracted from capillaries showed that part of the sphingomyelin (up to 40%) was hy-drolyzed in the brain capillaries to ceramide and free fatty acids. The hydrolysis was proportional to the amount of in-corporated sphingomyelin and reached a plateau when the HDL sphingomyelin concentration in the medium was 237 nmol/ml. The results of “pulse-chase” experiments showed that the choline moiety of sphingomyelin was recovered in the incubation medium after the chase period and that there was no redistribution of liberated choline in phosphatidylcholine of capillaries.

Notes: Abstract: We studied the hexose transporter prtotein of the frontal and temporal neocortex, hippocampui, putamen, cerebellum, and cerebral microvessels (which constitute the blood-brain barrier) in Alzheimer disease and control subjects by reversible and covalent binding with [3H]cytochalasin B and by immunological reactivity. In Alzheimer disease subjects, we found a marked decrease in the hexose transporter in brain microvessels and in the cerebral neocortex and hippocampus, regions that are most affected in Alzheimer disease, but there were no abnormalities in the putajnen or cerebellum. Hexose transporter reduction in cerebrajl microves-sels of Alzheimer subjects is relatively specific because other enzyme markers of brain endothelium were not significantly altered. The low density of the hexose transporter at the blood-brain barrier and in the cerebral cortex in Alzheimer disease may be related to decreased in vivo measurements of cerebral oxidative metabolism.

Notes: Abstract: The F3-87-8 glycoprotein was isolated from rat brain by immunoaffinity chromatography after biosynthetic labeling by intracerebral administration of [3H]glucosamine, and the oligosaccharide composition of pronase-derived gly-copeptides was determined by sequential lectin affinity chro-matography and alkali treatment. Triantennary complex oli-gosaccharides (65%) and O-glycosidic oligosaccharides (18%) were the predominant types present, accompanied by 7-10% each of biantennary and high-mannose oligosaccharides. Twenty-two percent of the complex oligosaccharides had a fucose residue linked to the proximal (N-acetylgluco|samine of the chitobiose units. No poly(N-acetyllactosaminyl) or hybrid oligosaccharides were detected. Immunocytochemical studies on the localization of this glycoprotein in developing rat brain demonstrated that in 1-week postnatal cerebellum, there is light staining of the internal granule cell layer and surrounding the Purkinje cells. By 2 weeks, an intense Staining of myelinating fiber tracts appears, accompanied by much lighter staining in the granule cell layer and at the base of the molecular layer. Staining of the white matter remains strong at 3 weeks postnatal, together with significant staining throughout the molecular layer, and then decreases in both areas by 1 month. In adult brain there is relatively uniform staining of approximately equal intensity in the white matter. granule cell layer, and molecular layer, whereas the Purkinje cell bodies appear unstained throughout development. In agreement with a previously reported immunochemical analysis, no staining was seen in other tissues, confirming the CNS-specific localization of this glycoprotein.

Notes: Abstract: The levels of the α-subunits of two GTP-binding proteins, Go and Gi2, were determined in neural and non-neural cloned cells by immunoassays. Goα was detected in all neural cells and some of nonneural cells, but not in HL-60 leukemic cells and PYS-2 teratocarcinoma-derived cells. The level of Goα was highest in the PC12 pheochroihocytoma cells. Gi2α was present in all types of cells tested, arid its level was highest in the HL-60 cells and relatively high in glioma ells. Treatment of PC 12 cells and neuroblastoma X glioma hybrid NG108-15 cells with nerve growth factor and forskolin, respectively, caused the extension of neuronal-like processes and increase in the level of Goα by 60-80%, but small changes in the levels of Gi2α.

Notes: Abstract: Bradykinin, which activates polymodal nociceptors, increased cyclic GMP (cGMP) in a capsaiciiji-sensitive population of cultured sensory neurones from rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by stimulating guanylate cyclase, but had no effect on cyclic AMP (cAMP). In nonneunbnal cells from DRG, bradykinin increased cAMP, but not cpMP. The bra-dykinin-induced increase in cGMP in thej neurones was completely blocked by removal of extracellular Ca2+, or by incubation of the cells with the calcium channel blockers nifedipine and verapamil. Pretreatment of the| neurones with either dibutyryl cGMP or sodium nitroprusside (which elevates cGMP) inhibited bradykinin-induced formation of inositol phosphates. It is possible that cGMP could be involved in the regulation of polyphosphoinositide turnover in DRG neurones.

Notes: Abstract: Crotoxin, isolated from the venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus, is a potent neurotoxin consisting of a basic and weakly toxic phospholipase A2 subunit (component B) and an acidic nonenzymatic subunit (component A). The nontoxic component A enhances the toxicity of the phospholipase subunit by preventing its nonspecific adsorption. The binding of crotoxin and of its subunits to small unilamellar phospholipid vesicles was examined under experimental conditions that prevented any phospholipid hydrolysis. Isolated component B rapidly bound with a low affinity (Kapp in the millimolar range) to zwitterionic phospholipid vesicles and with a high affinity (Kapp of 〈 1 μM) to negatively charged phospholipid vesicles. On the other hand, the crotoxin complex did not interact with zwitterionic phospholipid vesicles but dissociated in the presence of negatively charged phospholipid vesicles; the noncatalytic component A was released into solution, whereas component B remained tightly bound to lipid vesicles, with apparent affinity constants from 100 to 〈1 μM, according to the chemical composition of the phospholipids. On binding, crotoxin or its component B caused the leakage of a dye entrapped in vesicles of negatively charged but not of zwitterionic phospholipids. The selective binding of crotoxin suggests that negatively charged phospholipids may constitute a component of the acceptor site of crotoxin on the presynaptic plasma membrane.

Notes: Abstract: The antagonistic effects of gallamine on muscarinic receptor-linked responses were investigated in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells. M1 muscarinic receptor-mediated phos-phoinositide hydrolysis induced by carbamylcholine was antagonized by gallamine, with a Ki value of 33 μM. By comparison, gallamine was four- to fivefold less potent in blocking noncardiac M2 muscarinic receptor-mediated inhibition of cyclic AMP formation, with a Ki value of 144 μM. The resulting Arunlakshana-Schild plots of the antagonism of both responses by gallamine were linear and exhibited slopes not differing from 1, a result indicative of a competitive mechanism. To elucidate further the nature of gallamine's inhibitory actions, experiments were performed where the effects of gallamine in combination with the known competitive muscarinic antagonist, N-methylscopolamine (NMS), were studied. In the presence of both antagonists, a supraadditive shift in the carbamylcholine dose-response curve was demonstrated for the two responses, a result suggestive of an allosteric mode of interaction between gallamine and NMS binding sites. Confirmation that gallamine allosterically modifies the muscarinic receptor was provided by radioligand binding studies. Gallamine competition curves with either [N-methyl-3H]scopolamime methyl chloride ([3H]NMS) or [N-methyl-3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate methyl chloride ([3H]NMeQNB) were unusually shallow. Furthermore, gallamine decelerated the rate of dissociation of receptor-bound [3H]NMS 〉 [3HJNMeQNB in a dose-dependent manner. The present study demonstrates that whereas gallamine antagonizes carbamylcholine-mediated responses in N1E-115 cells in a competitive manner, an allosteric component of its action is revealed in the presence of muscarinic antagonists such as NMS.

Notes: Abstract: α-Bungarotoxin (α-BGT), a snake venom polypeptide, interacts potently and specifically with a nicotinic receptor population in neuronal tissue. However, the identity of this site is unclear, because, unlike at the neuromuscular junction and in electroplax, in nervous tissue the toxin does not block nicotinic cholinergic responses. Therefore, we sought endogenous compounds other than acetylcholine that could interact with the neuronal α-BGT site. In the present experiments, thymopoietin, a polypeptide isolated from the thymus, is shown to inhibit potently α-BGT binding to brain membranes in a dose-dependent manner (IC50= 3.1 nM). This effect was not shared by a wide variety of other peptides, including thysplenin, a closely related polypeptide. Thymopoietin did not inhibit the binding of other radioligands known to interact with different populations of cholinergic receptors, such as [3H]nicotine and [3H]methylcarbachol, which bind to nicotinic receptors, or [3H]quinuclidinylbenzilate, which binds to muscarinic receptors. These results show that thymopoietin potently and specifically affects l25I-α-BGT binding to brain membranes and suggest that thymopoietin might be an endogenous ligand for α-BGT receptors in neuronal tissue.

Notes: A lysosomal preparation, obtained from brain ho-mogenate of 17-day-old C57BL mice by centrifugation on a self-generating Percoll linear density gradient, showed relative specific activity (RSA) values for typical lysosomal enzymes of 40–120 and for mitochondria, plasma membrane, and cytosol markers of much lower than 1, a result indicating a high degree of homogeneity. The lysosomal preparation contained a sialidase activity that was assayed radiometrically with ganglioside [3H]GDla and fluorimetrically with 4-methylumbelliferyl-α-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUB-NeuAc). The properties of the lysosomal enzyme were compared with those of the plasma membrane-bound sialidase contained in a purified synaptosomal plasma membrane fraction that was prepared from the same homogenate and assayed with the same substrates. The optimal pH was 4.2 for the lysosomal and 5.1 for the plasma Membrane-bound enzyme. The apparent Km values for GDl a and MUB-NeuAc were 1.5 × 10-5 and 4.2 × 10-5M, respectively, for the lysosomal enzyme and 2.7 × 10-4 and 6.3 × 10-5M for the plasma membrane-bound one. Triton ×- 100 had a predominantly inhibitory effect on the lysosomal enzyme, whereas it strongly activated the plasma membrane-bound one. The lysosomal enzyme was highly unstable on storage and freezing and thawing cycles, whereas the plasma membrane-bound one was substantially stable. The RSA value of the lysosomal sialidase in the lysosomal fraction closely resembled that of authentic lysosomal enzymes, whereas the RSA value of plasma membrane-bound sialidase in the plasma membrane fraction was very similar to that of typical plasma membrane markers. It is thus evident that the sialidase present in the lysosomal fraction is an authentic lysosomal enzyme distinct and different from the sialidase contained in the plasma membrane. The lysosomal sialidase affected other ganglio-sides, like GDlb and GM3. These data constitute the first direct evidence for the presence in brain lysosomes of a sialidase activity on gangliosides and contribute to a better knowledge of ganglioside breakdown and turnover in the brain.

Notes: The novel N-methyl-D-aspartate recjeptor channel ligand (+)-[3H]5-methyl-J0, l1-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a, d]-cyclohepten-5, 10-imine maleate ([3H]MK-801) has been utilized to label this receptor in human brain tissiie. Characteristics of [3H]MK-801 binding to well-washeq membranes from 17 control subjects and 16 patients with Alzheimer's disease were determined in frontal, parietal, and temporal cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex. In control tissue the pharmacological specificity of the binding of this substance is entirely consistent with the profile previously reported for rat brain. Binding could be stimulated by the addition of glutamic acid to the incubation medium; addition of glycine produced further enhancement which was not prevented by strychnine. The specificity of the effects of the and other amino acids on the binding was the same as in the rat. In Alzheimer's disease significantly less binding Was observed in the frontal cortex under glutamate- and glycine-stimulated conditions. This appears to be associated with a reduced affinity of the site whereas the pharmacological specificity of the site remained unchanged. The effect did not appear to be due to differences in mode of death between Alzheimer's disease and control subjects and is unlikely to be related to factors for which the groups were matched. In contrast, binding was not altered in the absence of added amino acids and presence of glutamate alone. These results imply that in the cerebral cortex the agonist site and a site in the cation channel of the receptor are not selectively altered, but that their coupling to a strychnine-insensitive glycine recognition site is impaired.

Notes: In the present study, we obtained genetically manipulated nonneuronal cells which synthesize a catecholamine precursor for future use in intracerebral grafting. Human type 1 tyrosine hydroxylase (TH; EC 1.14.16.2) cDNA was inserted into eukaryotic expression vector pKCRH2 and was co-transfected into C6 cells with plasmid pSV2neo. Expression of the TH minigene was screened by immuno-histochemical staining with TH antibody and immunoblot-ting analysis. Several clones of the C6 transfectahts that produce TH molecules were obtained. These cells showed TH activity, and the product, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), was detected intracellulary due to the ajbsence of L-amino acid decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.28) activity. It was found that a large amount of L-DOPA was released from the cells into the culture medium. These transfectants were transplanted into rat brain, and the expression of TH was examined immunohistochemically. On the 10th day following transplantation, a mass of C6 cells which was heavily stained with TH antibody was observed in the brain. These findings may provide us with an opportunity to investigate the effects of intracerebral transplantation of nonneuronal cells that produce catecholamine or its precursor.

Notes: γ-Aminobutyric acidB (GABAB) receptor recognition sites that inhibit cyclic AMP formation, open potassium channels, and close calcium channels are coupled to these effector systems by guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins). These G proteins are ADP-ribosylated by islet-activating protein (IAP), also known as pertussis tokin. This process prevents receptor coupling to these G proteins. In slices of cerebral cortex and hippocampus from rat, stimulation of GABAB receptors with baclofen, a receptor agonist, also potentiates the accumulation of cyclic AMP stimulated by β-adrenergic agonists. It was unknown whether those GA-BAB receptors that potentiate the β-adrenergic response were also sensitive to IAP. IAP was injected intracerebroventric-ularly into rats to ADP-ribosylate IAP-sensitive G proteins. Four days after the IAP injection, 38% and 52% of these G proteins from cerebral cortex and hippocampus, respectively, were ADP-ribosylated by the IAP injection. In slices of both structures prepared from IAP-treated rats, the GABAB receptor-mediated potentiation of the β-adrenergic receptor response was attenuated. Thus, many GABAB receptor-mediated responses are coupled to IAP-sensitive G proteins.

Notes: Developmental changes of preprocholecystokinin mRNA (CCK mRNA) and cholecystokinin-like immunoreactivity (CCK-LI) were examined in rat brain regions (frontal cortex, colliculi, hippocampus, striatum, and cerebellum) using RNA dot blot assays with cholecystokinin (CCK) cDNA and radioimmunoassay, respectively. The CCK-LI levels in all regions examined were Very low at birth. Excluding the cerebellum, the levels in these Regions increased postnatally and reached adult values at 28 days of age. In contrast to CCK-LI, CCK mRNA levels changed dramatically during development. A considerable amount of CCK mRNA was detected in the frontal cortex and hippocampus at birth. The changes in the level of CCK mRNA in the frontal cortex and colliculi paralleled those of CCK-LI, including a rapid increase from 7 to 14 days of age. The synthesis of CCK mRNA preceded the appearance of CCK-LI. CCK mRNA levels in the hippocampus and striatum exhibited a transient increase, with a peak at 14 days of age. In the adult brain, the CCK mRNA levels were high in the frontal cortex, moderate in the hippocampus and colliculi, and low in the striatum. The cerebellum contained only a negligible amount of CCK mRNA during development. The relatively high level of CCK-LI compared with the low level of CCK mRNA in the striatum supports the idea that most of the striatal CCK-LI is supplied from extrastriatal regions. These results suggest that (a) CCK gene expression, numbers of CCK neurons, or both may increase from 7 to 14 days of age and (b) differential regulation of CCK gene expression and posttranscriptional regulatory mechanisms may exist in the various brain regions during development.

Notes: K-252a, a protein kinase inhibitor isolated from the culture broth of Nocardiopsis sp., inhibits the nerve growth factor (NGF)-stimulated phosphorylation of microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) and Kemptide (synthetic Leu-Arg-Arg-Ala-Ser-Leu-Gly) by blocking the activation of two independent kinases in PC 12 cells: MAP2/pp250 kinase and Kemptide kinase. The NGF-stimulated activation of these kinases is inhibited in a dose-dependent manner following treatment of the cells with K-252a. Although these kinases also are activated by epidermal growth factoi (EGF) and 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol 13-acetate, K-252a has no inhibitory effect when these agents are used. Half-maximal inhibition of the activation of both kinases was observed at 10–30 nM K-252a. K-252a was shown to directly inhibit the activity of MAP2/pp250 kinase and Kemptide kinase when added tc the phosphorylation reaction mixture in vitro; however, half-maximal inhibition under these conditions was observed at ±50 nM K-252a. These data suggest that K-252a exerts its effects at a step early in the cascade of events following NGF binding. The effects of K-252a are similar to those reported for 5′-S-methyladenosine (MTA) and other methyltransferase inhibitors. Treatment of PC12 cells with MTA inhibited NGF-, but not EGF-mediated activation of MAP2/pp250-kinase (Ki± 500 μM). MTA, when added to the phosphorylation reaction mixture in vitro, directly inhibited kinase activity (Ki= 50 μM), suggesting that the effects of MTA may be the result of its action on protein kinases rather than methyltransferases.

Notes: The regulation of the central σr-binding site was investigated using both in vitro and in vivo manipulations in conjunction with radioligand binding. The displacement of the binding of R(+)-[3H]3-[3-hydroxyphenyl][N-(l-pro-pyl)piperidine (R(+)-{3H]3-PPP} to cortical homogenates by a range of drugs was consistent with the site labelled being a σ-receptor. (+)-SKF 10,047, (-)-SKF 10,047, (±)-cyclazo-cine, phencyclidine, and dexoxadrol displaced R(+)-[3H]3-PPP with pseudo-Hill coefficients of less than . Further analysis employing nonlinear curve fitting techniques demonstrated that displacement data for these compounds were described better by a model whereby R(+)-[3H]3(-PPP was displaced from two discrete sites; approximately 6[5% of the total sites were in the high-affinity state. In the presence of 10 mM Mg2+ and 0.3 mM GTP, displacement curves for (+)-SKF 10,047 and (±)-cyclazocine were shifted to the right. These findings were due to the shift of some 15% of the high-affinity binding sites to a low-affinity state. Saturation experiments revealed that 0.3 mM GTP acted competitively to decrease the affinity of R(+)-[3H]3-PPP for the σ suites. The σ-binding site was thus likely to be linked to a guanine nucleotide regulatory (G) protein. Thus σ drugs could be subdivided on the basis of their GTP sensitivity and psdudo-Hill coefficients, and by analogy with other receptors R(+)-3-PPP. (+)-SKF 10,047, and (±)-cyclazocine, may be putative σ-agonists. l,3-Di(2-tolyl)guanidine (DTG), rimcazole, and haloperidol displaced R(+)-[3H]3-PPP with pseudo-Hill coefficients of approximately unity and thus may be σ-antagonists. Subchronic treatment with rimcazole was characterized by slight sedation and a concomitant up-regulation, with a decrease in the affinity, of σr-binding sites. The schedule of rimcazole also increased dopamine turnover in the nucleus ac-cumbens; both the concentration of 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-acetic acid (DOPAC) and the DOPAC/dopamine ratio were elevated. DTG produced similar alterations to the binding parameters of the σ-binding site; however, changes were not observed in general behavior or accumbal dopamine turnover. (T-Receptors are likely to be linked to a G protein and are functionally involved in the CNS.

Notes: Calcium/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase II (CaM-kinase II) contained within the postsynaptic density (PSD) was shown to become partially Ca2+-indepen-dent following initial activation by Ca2+/CaM. Generation of this Ca2+-independent species was dependent upon auto-phosphorylation of both subunits of the enzynme in the presence of Mg2+/ATP/Ca2+/CaM and attained a maximal value of 74 ± 5% of the total activity within 1–2 min. Subsequent to the generation of this partially Ca2+-independent form of PSD CaM-kinase II, addition of EGTA to the autophos-phorylation reaction resulted in further stimulation of 32PO4 incorporation into both kinase subunits and a loss of stimulation of the kinase by Ca2+/CaM. Examination of the sites of Ca2+-dependent autophosphorylation by phosphoamino acid analysis and peptide mapping of both kinase subunits suggested that phosphorylation of Thr286/287 of the α- and β-subunits, respectively, may be responsible for the transition of PSD CaM-kinase II to the Ca2+-independent species. A synthetic peptide 281–309 corresponding to a portion of the regulatory domain (residues 281–314) of the soluble kinase inhibited syntide-2 phosphorylation by the Ca2+-independent form of PSD CaM-kinase II (IC50= 3.6 ± 0.8 μM). Binding of Ca2+/CaM to peptide 281–309 abolished its inhibitory property. Phosphorylation of Thr286 in peptide 281–309 also decreased its inhibitory potency. These data suggest that CaM-kinase II in the PSD possesses regulatory properties and mechanisms of activation similar to the cytosolic form of CaM-kinase II.

Notes: Abstract: Isolated rat pineal glands were incubated in vitro in a medium containing [I4C]dopamine or [14C]tyrosine, and the tissue contents of l4C-labelled and total dopamine and noradrenaline were determined by HPLC followed by electrochemical detection and scintillation spectrometry. During incubation with [l4C]dopamine, the labelled amine accumulated in pineal glands and was partially converted into [l4C]noradrenaline. Nomifensine, a neuronal amine uptake blocker, largely inhibited the accumulation of [l4C]dopamine and the formation of [14C]noradrenaline. These experiments demonstrated dopamine β-hydroxylase activity in the sympathetic nerves of the pineal gland. During incubation with [14C]tyrosine, formation of [l4C]dopamine and [14C]noradrenaline was observed in the pineal tissue, indicating that noradrenaline can also be synthesized from dopamine, endogenously formed in the gland. Electrical stimulation of the stalk region of the pineal gland during incubation with [l4C]dopamine enhanced the accumulation of [l4C]dopamine and synthesis of [14C]noradrenaline. Electrical stimulation also enhanced the formation of [l4C]dopamine during incubation with [l4C]tyrosine. Compared to that at midday, the tissue content of endogenous noradrenaline at midnight was enhanced by 50% and that of dopamine by 450%. The in vitro accumulation of [14C]dopamine, as well as the synthesis of [14C]dopamine and [14C]noradrenaline, was also increased at midnight. In conclusion, sympathetic nerves in the rat pineal gland contain tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, the two enzymes required for the synthesis of noradrenaline. The capacity of the pineal gland to synthesize dopamine and noradrenaline is enhanced during the night.

Notes: Abstract: Acetylcholine (ACh) conjugates were injected into AKR and DBA mice over a period of 10 weeks. The polyclonal antisera were tested at various immunization times for affinity and specificity using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The most immunoreactive compound was found to be choline-glutaryl-bovine sej-um albumin (or conjugated ACh). The AKR and DBA mice yielding the highest apparent affinity were killed, and the spleen cells were fused with X63 or SP2/0/Ag mouse myeloma cells. Supernatants of confluent cultures were tested for the presence of anti-conjugated ACh antibodies using the same ELISA method. The best results were obtained with the hybridomas from AKR spleen cells and X63 mouse myeloma cells. Monoclonal antibody affinity and specificity were then evaluated by a radioimmunological procedure using iodinated monoclonal anti-conjugated ACh antibody. From competition experiments, the most immunoreactive compound was choline-glutaryl-protein. The other related compounds were recognized either poorly or not at all. The high affinity and specificity of our monoclonal antibody enabled us to visualize ACh molecules on fixed rat brain sections. ACh was fixed with a mixture of nitrobenzyl alcohol and glutaraldehyde. Many ACh-immunoreactive cell bodies and fibers were seen on sections from the basal forebrain and spinal cord. Pread-sorption and other immunohistochemical tests demonstrated that the ACh staining was highly specific.

Notes: Abstract: The brain uptake index (BUI) of L-jtryptophan and diazepam into the right and left hemispheres and the cerebellum has been measured after a bolus injection into the carotid artery of the anaesthetised rat. The effect of a range of albumin concentrations (38 μM to 1.4 mM; 0.25-9 g/100 ml) on the viscosity and osmotic pressure ot the bolus was studied as a preliminary to the brain uptake experiments. Dextran (Mr 60,000-90,000) was included in the injection to ensure constant viscosity and osmotic pressure. An increase in albumin concentration up to 2 g/100 ml substantially reduced the BUI of L-tryptophan, but a further increase in albumin concentration up to 9 g/100 ml respited in only a slow fall in the BUI of L-tryptophan which was not proportional to the larger fall in the concentration of unbound L-tryptophan. Furthermore, the use of norharmane as an inhibitor of L-tryptophan binding did not reveal a simple relationship between its unbound concentration and BUI. A decrease in the unbound concentration of diazepam also reduced its BUI, but again there was no straightforward relationship between this and unbound diazepam concentration. The differences observed in the BUI of inulin from solutions of either dextran or albumin indicate not only that each mac-romolecule may exert particular effects on the BUI, perhaps by an influence on cerebral blood flow, but also show how difficult it is to devise solutions for injection which differ in respect of only one variable, that of the unbound ligand concentration.

Notes: Abstract: A compound that can enhance the apparent synthesis of acetylcholine in cultured explants of the medial septal nucleus has been purified from rat brain and identified as phosphoethanolamine. Acetylcholine synthesis is stimulated two- to threefold in cultures grown for 5 days in the presence of phosphoethanolamine, ethanolamine, or cytidine 5′-di-phosphoethanolamine at concentrations above 100 μM. This effect appears to result from an increase in the accumulation of choline via the high-affinity, sodium-dependent uptake mechanism. The development of choline acetyltransferase activity is not affected. Phosphoethanolamine and ethanolamine seem to enhance the ability of developing cholinergic neurons to utilize choline accumulated via the sodium-dependent high-affinity choline uptake mechanism for the preferential production of acetylcholine without increasing the general metabolism of the cultures. Choline itself and its related derivatives are not stimulatory for these effects.

Notes: Abstract: [3H]Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, [3H]5-HT) was used as a radioligand probe of brain 5-HT receptors in homogenates of human cortical tissue. Two binding sites were detected in the presence of 1 μM pindolol (to block 5-HT1Aand 5-HT1B receptors), and 100 nM mesulergine (to block 5-HT1c and 5-HT2 receptors). One of these sites demonstrated high affinity for 5-carboxyamidotryptamine (5-CT) and er-gotamine, consistent with the known pharmacology of the 5-HT1D receptor; the second site demonstrated low affinity for 5-CT and ergotamine. Computer-assisted analyses indicated that both drugs displayed high affinities (Ki values of 1.1 nM and 0.3 nM for 5-CT and ergotamine, respectively) for 55% of the sites and low affinities (Ki values of 910 nM and 155 nM for 5-CT and ergotamine, respectively) for 45% of the sites. To investigate the non-5-HT1D component of the binding, 100 nM 5-CT (to block 5-HT1A, 5TTT1B, and 5-HT1D receptors) was coincubated with [3H]5-HT, membranes, and mesulergine. The remaining [3H]5-HT binding (hereafter referred to as “5-HT1E”) displayed high affinity and saturability (KD, 5.3 nM; Bmax, 83 fmol/mg) in human cortical tissue. Competition studies with nonradioactive drugs indicated that, of the drugs tested, 5-CT and ergotamine displayed the highest selectivity for the 5-HT1D site versus the 5-HT1E site. The interaction of the 5-HT1E site with a GTP-binding protein was demonstrated; the nonhydrolyzable derivatives of GTP, guanosine 5′-0-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPγS) and 5′-guanylylimidodiphosphate [Gpp(NH)p], potently inhibited binding of [3H]5-HT to the 5-HT1E site (IC50 values of 16 and 172 nM, respectively) while adenosine 5′-0-(3-thiotriphosphate) (ATPγS) and 5′-adenylylimidodi-phosphate [App(NH)p] were without effect. The high affinity of 5-HT for the site, the unique pharmacological profile of the site, and the interaction of the site with a GTP-binding protein indicate that this site represents a unique 5-HT receptor subtype heretofore undescribed, and which we propose to call 5-HT1E in keeping with the current system of nomenclature in the 5-HT receptor field.

Notes: Abstract: Glycine is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in posterior regions of the brain. In addition, glycine serves as an allosteric regulator of excitatory neurotransmission mediated by the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) acidic amino acid receptor subtype. The studies presented here characterize [3H]glycine binding to washed membranes prepared from rat spinal cord and cortex, areas enriched in glycine inhibitory and NMDA receptors, respectively, in an attempt to define the glycine recognition sites on the two classes of receptors. Specific binding for [3H]glycine was seen in both cortex and spinal cord. Saturation analyses in cortex were best fitted by a two-site model with respective equilibrium dissociation constants (KD values) of 0.24 and 5.6 μM and respective maximal binding constants (Bmax values) of 3.4 and 26.7 pmol/mg of protein. Similar analyses in spinal cord were best fitted by a one-site model with a KD of 5.8 μM and Bmax of 20.2 pmol/mg of protein. Na+ had no effect on [3H]glycine binding to cortical membranes but increased the binding to spinal cord membranes by 〈15-foId. This Na+-dependent binding may reflect glycine binding to the recognition site of the high-affinity, Na+-dependent glycine uptake system. Several short-chain, neutral amino acids displaced [3H]glycine binding from both cortical and spinal cord membranes. The most potent displacers of [3H]glycine binding to cortical membranes were D-serine and D-alanine, followed by the L-isomers of serine and alanine and β-alanine. In contrast. D-serine and D-alanine were similar in potency to L-serine in spinal cord membranes. Compounds active at receptors for the acidic amino acids had disparate effects on the binding of [3H]glycine. At 10 μM, NMDA resulted in a 25% increase, whereas D- and L-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid at 100 μM resulted in a 30% decrease, in [3H]glycine binding to cortical membranes. Kynurenic acid was the most potent of the acidic amino acid-related compounds at displacing [3H]glycine binding. In cortical membranes, kynurenic acid displacement was resolved into a high- and a low-affinity component; the high-affinity component displaced the high-affinity component of [3H]glycine binding. Strychnine, 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-isoxazolo[4,5-d]azepin-3-ol, and 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-isoxazolo[3,4-d]azepin-3-ol, antagonists at the glycine postsynaptic inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor, displaced from 25 to 40% of f3H]glycine binding in spinal cord membranes but had no effect on the binding in cortical membranes, a result suggesting that this amount of [3H]gIycine binding in spinal cord membranes was to the inhibitory postsynaptic glycine receptor. The data suggest that [3H]glycine binding measures different receptor populations in cortical versus spinal cord membranes. The results are discussed in terms of binding to the glycine allosteric site on the NMDA receptor in cortical membranes and binding to the glycine recognition site on the glycine inhibitory postsynaptic receptor in spinal cord membranes.

Notes: Abstract: Several procedures were employed to examine the in vitro interaction between S-100 proteins and microtubule proteins. Binding of S-100 to τ factors was observed under all experimental conditions. S-100 binding to microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) was best detected by exposing nitrocellulose-immobilized MAP2 or MAPs to either 125I-labeled S-100 or biotinylated S-100. S-100 binding to tubulin was detected when the two protein fractions were first incubated with each other followed by exposure to the Afunctional cross-linker disuccinimidylsuberate, and then separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel [electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and transfered onto nitrocellulose paper. By this procedure, complex formation between S-100 and tubulin, as well as between S-100 and a relatively low-molecular-weight MAP, was evidenced by immunoblotting using an anti-S-100 antiserum. Alternatively, complex formation between biotinylated S-100 and either tubulin or MAPs was visualized by means of avidin-peroxidase, after SDS-PAGE of the complex mixtures and transfer of the separated proteins onto nitrocellulose. The interaction between S-100 and tubulin was strictly Ca2+ dependent, and resistant to high concentrations of KC1, colchicine, or vinblastine.

Notes: Abstract: The effect of ischemia on the properties of 5-hydroxytryptamine1A+B (5-HT1A+B) and 5-hydroxytrypt-amine1B5-HT1B) binding sites, physical-state “fluidity” of the membrane, and its susceptibility to peroxidation in vitro was investigated in the cerebral cortex of gerbils. Ischemia was induced by bilateral carotid artery occlusion for 15 min alone or with release for 1 h. Ischemia both with and without reflow decreased the number of 5-HT1A+B and 5-HT1B binding sites, whereas ischemia and reflow altered the affinity for 5-HT1B binding sites. Resistance to the temperature-dependent increase in “fluidity” of the membrane was detected (by fluorescence anisotropy using l,6-diphenyl-l,3,5-hexatriene as a probe) after ischemia and reflow but not in ischemia alone. Susceptibility of the membranes to Fe2+- and ascorbic acid-stimulated lipid peroxidation in vitro was decreased following ischemia and recirculation only. These findings strongly suggest that the composition and the function of the membrane are markedly disturbed during recirculation after ischemia.

Notes: Abstract: Muscimol and t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate (TBPS) are known to label two distinct sites within the γ-aminobutyric acidA(GABAA) receptor complex, i.e., the GABA recognition site and the chloride ionophore, respectively. Age-dependent changes in the specific binding of [3H]muscimol and [3SS]TBPS were compared in membranes prepared from the cerebral cortex of rats, 2-800 days old. Perinatal (day 2) binding of muscimol and TBPS represented 8 and 20% of the respective values for adults (day 180). After the first week, muscimol binding increased more rapidly than TBPS binding. Levels near those of adults were reached at day 20 and remained practically unchanged in adulthood (day 180). In aged (780-day-old) rats, the binding of TBPS was significantly reduced, whereas muscimol binding did not change compared with adult values This decrease of TBPS binding derived from a reduced density of binding sites, rather than from affinity changes. The allosteric responsiveness of TBPS binding to exogenous GABA was also reduced in aged animals. These findings indicate an age-related change in the molecular (structural) organization of the GABAA receptor-chloride ionophore complex in rat cerebral cortex.

Notes: Abstract: The interaction of the nonselective opioid ligand [3H]bremazocine and of the k-opioid [3H]U69593 with the k-receptor was investigated in guinea-pig cortical membranes. Each radioligand bound to a single population of high-affinity sites, although [3H]U69593 apparently recognised only 70% of those sites labelled by [3H]bremazocine. Naloxone and the selective ligands U69593 and PD117302 exhibited full inhibition of the binding of both radioligands. Kinetic analysis demonstrated biphasic rates of association and dissociation for both [3H]bremazocine and [3H]U69593. Detailed analysis of the binding of [3H]U69593 revealed that the fast rate of association was dependent on radioligand concentration, in contrast to the slow rate, which was independent of ligand concentration. Guanylyl-5′-imidodiphosphate (GppNHp) inhibited binding of [3H]U69593; saturation analysis demonstrated that the inhibitory effects of GppNHp resulted in a decrease in affinity without any significant change in binding capacity. GppNHp attenuated the formation of the slow component of [3H]U69593 binding, while accelerating the fast component. The data are consistent with the formation of a high-affinity complex between the k-receptor and a guanine nucleotide binding protein. Guanine nucleotides promote the dissociation of this ternary complex and the stabilisation of a lower-affinity state of the receptor.

Notes: Abstract: A panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was developed to identify polypeptides sorted in subtypes of brain coated vesicles (CVs) and to separate these by immunoprecipitation. The corresponding antigen of some of the mAbs elicited by CV components was present also in synaptosomal plasma membrane, synaptic vesicles, or microsomes. On im-munoblots the mAbs reacted with constitutive brain CV proteins, with cargo molecules, and with a novel CV component that interacts with the actin cytoskeleton. Analysis of radio-iodinated brain CVs immunoprecipitated with a tubulin antibody revealed that all brain CVs contained tubulin. The mAb A-7C11 recognized a 40-kilodalton (kDa) polypeptide on the clathrin coat and immunoprecipitated one-quarter of the total brain CVs. The mAb S-l1 D9 reacted with a 44-kDa antigen and immunoprecipitated 25% of the CVs. This antigen (44 kDa) was present in synaptic vesicles and synaptosomal membrane as well. Moreover, this mAb (S-11 D9) reacted with a polypeptide of 56 kDa detected only in synaptosomal membrane. A mAb (C-10B2) that reacted with one of the clathrin light chains (LCb) immunoprecipitated 90% of the brain CVs. One of the mAbs immunoprecipitated a CV subtype that displayed a reversed ratio of the clathrin LCs (LCa 〉 LCb). Each of the mAbs yielded different im-munofluorescent staining patterns of vesicles in culture cell types that included nerve growth factor-differentiated PC 12 cells, neuroblastoma cells, and Madin Darby bovine kidney cells. The data suggest that in brain tissue there is a heterogeneous population of CVs with different polypeptide compositions and subcellular distributions and that each of these subtypes performs a different role in nerve cells.

Notes: Abstract: The interaction of 125I-labeled tetanus toxin with PC 12 pheochromocytoma cells in monolayer cultures has been examined. Under regular growth conditions, the PC 12 cells bind 125I-tetanus toxin to a limited degree compared with dissociated cerebral neuron cultures. After exposure to nerve growth factor for 2 days in low serum-containing media with growth factor supplements, binding of toxin increases over twofold compared with untreated PC 12 cells. Binding can also be enhanced (〉2.5-fold) after treatment of cells with 2mM sodium metaperiodate for 20 min. Dissociated cerebral neurons but not fibroblasts in cell culture bind more toxin after periodate treatment. The effect of periodate can be abolished by 5 mM sodium borohydride. A ganglioside isolated from periodate-treated PC 12 cells and tentatively identified as GT1b [(N-acetylneuraminyl)galactosyl-N-acetyl-galactosaminyl(N-acetylneuraminyl-N-acetylneuraminyl)-galactosyl-glucosylceramide] binds 125I-tetanus toxin on silica gel chromatoplates and on nitrocellulose paper. There are no indications to suggest binding to a polypeptide from treated cells after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Cells artificially supplemented with GTlb and subsequently treated with periodate effectively bind the toxin. The data suggest that modified sialyl groups linked to gangliosides, and not to proteins, are preferential targets for tetanus toxin.

Notes: Abstract: The major component of D-glucose transfer across the membranous sites of the blood-nerve barrier (BNB) occurs via a facilitative mechanism at a rate greater than twice the rate of D-glucose metabolism by nerve. To characterize further properties of monosaccharide transport at the BNB, unidirectional transfer constant (K) values were determined in vivo in tibial nerve of anesthetized rats for radiolabeled mannitol, L-glucose, and a series of D-glucose analogs. K values (× 10−4 ml s−1 g−l) equaled 4.8 for 2-deoxy-D-glucose, 3.7 for D-glucose, 2.3 for 3-O-methyl-D-glucose, 1.4 for D-man-nose, 0.6 for D-galactose, 0.2 for mannitol, and 0.19 for L-glucose. The rank order of ratios between K values of a D-hexose and D-glucose, which reflects the rank order of affinity of the system for individual sugars, was 2-deoxy-D-glucose 〉 D-glucose 〉 3-O-methyl-D-glucose 〉 D-mannose 〉 D-galactose. The results demonstrate that the order of substrate affinity of the monosaccharide carrier at the BNB is similar to that at cerebral capillaries and at erythrocytes. At normal concentrations of plasma D-glucose, the contribution of simple passive diffusion to unidirectional D-glucose influx across the BNB equals 5%, which is greater than that at cerebral capillaries and reflects the greater permeability to hydrophilic nonelectrolytes of the endoneurial vasculature.

Notes: Abstract: The brains of 1-day-old chicks were shown to be a rich source of binding sites with the pharmacological characteristics expected of a quisqualate-type glutamate receptor. α-[3H]Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazolepropionate ([3H]AMPA) bound with KD and Bmax values, measured at 0°C in the presence of the chaotrope potassium thiocyanate, of 55 nMand 2.6 pmol/mg protein. The regional localisations of [3H]AMPA and [3H]kainate binding sites were manifestly different. The membrane-bound [3H]AMPA binding sites were efficiently solubilised by N-octyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (1%) in the presence of 0.2 M thiocyanate. In the detergent extract the affinity was 69 nM and there was an apparent increase in the number of sites (Bmax, 4.6 pmol/mg protein). The rank order of potency for competitive ligands in displacing [3H]AMPA binding was quisqualate ∼ AMPA 〉 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione 〉 L-glutamate 〉 kainate and was identical for the membrane-bound and solubilised sites. Dissociation was biphasic with rate constants of 0.117 min−1 and 0.015 min−1. The association rate constants for [3H]AMPA at the solubilised sites were 1.45 × 106M−1 min−1 and 6.55 × 106M−1 min−1 The kinetically derived KD values were 80.7 nM and 2.3 nM The detection of higher affinity binding sites by kinetic analysis but not by equilibrium binding may be explained by the greater sensitivity of dissociation data to small populations of high-affinity sites. Solubilised [3H]AMPA binding sites were specifically retained on a wheat germ lectin column, but did not migrate as a single peak in sucrose density gradients or elute from a cation-exchange column at a specific NaCl concentration. The results demonstrate the solubilisation of a stable [3H]AMPA binding protein and suggest that chick brain, and specifically chick telencephalon, will provide a useful system for further characterisation and purification of the quisqualate-type glutamate receptor.

Notes: Abstract: Purified cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (cAK) catalytic subunit phosphorylated 180-, 49-, 31-, 19-, and 14-kilodalton (kDa) proteins of rabbit sciatic nerve membranes. The ability of cAK to phosphorylate these membrane substrate proteins was inhibited by gangliosides GM1, GDIa, and GTlb with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (I50) = 7–25 μM. Neutral glycolipids and lyso-phosphatidylcholine were much less effective. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) kinase phosphorylation of histone IIA was inhibited by GM1, GDla, and GTlb (I50 = 115 μM, 75 μM, and 75 μM, respectively). Inhibition by GM1 was competitive with respect to histone (K-, = 108 μM). Autophosphorylation of cAMP kinase was inhibited by GM1 (I50 = 15 μM). GTlb, GDla, and GM1 half-maximally stimulated calmodulin-de-pendent cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase at 0.1 μM, 0.2 μM, and 0.3 μM, respectively. Although GTlb stimulated phosphodiesterase by increasing Vmax and decreasing Km (similar to calmodulin), GDla and GM1 produced only an increase in Vmax. These results suggest that ganglioside can modulate the activity of cAMP kinase by both direct inhibition of the enzyme and indirect reduction of cAMP levels through activation of phosphodiesterase. Through these mechanisms, gangliosides may alter cAMP-dependent protein phosphorylation and cell function within the nervous system.

Notes: Abstract: The transport characteristics of choline acetyl-transferase (ChAT; EC 2.3.1.6), acetylcholinesterase (AChE; EC 3.1.1.7), and the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) were studied in perineurally sutured, regenerating rat sciatic nerve. At different times after repair, the sciatic nerve was ligated for 24 h, and the activities of the cholinergic marker proteins, as well as the binding capacity, were measured proximally and distally from the ligature. The number of bidirectionally transported receptors increased linearly up to 5 months postoperatively (6.1–33.6% and 5.6–25.6% of the control level proximal and distal to the ligature, respectively). The quantity of anterogradely transported ChAT reached a plateau 3 months postoperatively (74.9% of the control level), whereas the retrogradely transported enzyme was then only 34.7% of the control value. The activity of AChE increased linearly during nerve regeneration, and exceeded the control level after 4 months (121.0% and 63.7% proximally and distally, respectively). The data indicate that the altered bidirectional transport of cholinergic marker proteins may be monitored quantitatively during nerve regeneration. This method might be suitable for studies of the nerve regeneration process.

Notes: Abstract: Glutamate toxicity was studied in neuronal (SC9), glial (WC5), and neuroblastoma-glioma hybrid cell lines. In all three cell types, glutamate had a dual effect, depending on the concentration of glutamine in the culture medium. An expected dose-dependent cytotoxicity of the amino acid was observed when cells were cultured in medium containing the standard glutamine concentration (1-4 mM), but when the culture's glutamine content was decreased to 0.15–0.5 mM, glutamate had an apparent opposite, growth-promoting effect. The specificity of glutamate effect was indicated by the following: (a) it was stereospecific, with the L and not the D isomer being active; (b) monosodium aspartate was inactive in the presence of either high or low glutamine; and (c) monosodium glutamate and monopotassium glutamate had a similar dual effect. Furthermore, the glutamate receptor antagonist γ-glutamylglycine blocked the amino acid cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent fashion. As glial cells are a major source of glutamine in the brain, neuronal-glial co-cultures were used to analyze the possible role of glial cells in glutamate neurotoxicity. It was found that SC9 cells were more sensitive to glutamate when co-cultured with WC5 cells. Continuous depolarization of the SC9 cells with KCl decreased cell number, but glutamate had no additive neurotoxic effect when added with KCl. We suggest that glutamine, glial cells, and neuronal activation play roles in modulating glutamate neurotoxicity, in developing as well as aged brains. It is tempting to speculate also that alterations in the glutamate/glutamine ratio under pathological conditions may take part in the etiology of some neurodegenerative diseases.

Notes: Abstract: The tyrosination state of tubulin and the enzymes involved in the tubulin tyrosination/detyrosination cycle—tubulin:tyrosine ligase and tubulin carboxypeptidase—were determined in chick retina during development. The amount of tyrosinable (tyrosinated plus detyrosinated) tubulin increased ∼110% from embryonic day 7 to 14. Then it decreased, and by day 19 it was similar to the value on day 7. This result did not change after hatching, at least up to day 20. The proportion of tyrosinated and detyrosinated tubulin significantly changed with the development of the animal. At embryonic day 7, these tubulin species were at a proportion of 70 and 30%, respectively, and after hatching, the values inverted, to 30 and 70%, respectively. This change did not correlate with the activity of the ligase relative to that of the carboxypeptidase, as measured in vitro. This observation suggested that a change in the turnover rate of microtubules, in the proportion of assembled and nonassembled tubulin pools, or in both had occurred. Coincident with the last possibility, the proportion of assembled tubulin was found to increase during the development of the animal. This finding suggests that the tyrosination state of tubulin may be determined, at least in part, by the assembly state.

Notes: Abstract: Conditions are described for controlled plasma membrane permeabilization of rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12) and cultured bovine adrenal chromaffin cells by Streptolysin O (SLO). The transmembrane pores created by SLO invoke rapid efflux of intracellular 86Rb+ and ATP, and also permit passive diffusion of proteins, including immunoglobulins, into the cells. SLO-permeabilized PC12 cells release [3H]dopamine in response to micromolar concentrations of free Ca2+. Permeabilized adrenal chromaffin cells present a similar exocytotic response to Ca2+ in the presence of Mg2+/ ATP. Permeabilized PC12 cells accumulate antibodies against synaptophysin and calmodulin, but neither antibody reduces the Ca2+-dependent secretory response. Reduced tetanus toxin, although ineffective when applied to intact chromaffin cells, inhibits Ca2+-induced exocytosis by both types of permeabilized cells studied. Omission of dithiothreitol, toxin inactivation by boiling, or preincubation with neutralizing antibodies abolishes the inhibitory effect. The data indicate that plasma membrane permeabilization by Streptolysin O is a useful tool to probe and define cellular components that are involved in the final steps of exocytosis.

Notes: Abstract: The thermodynamic parameters associated with the interactions of agonists and antagonists with glycine receptors in rat spinal cord membranes were determined. The binding of the antagonist [3H]strychnine and the inhibition of strychnine binding by 11 different glycinergic ligands were examined at temperatures between 0.5 and 37°C The density of receptors was not affected by the temperature at which the incubation was performed, but the ability of glycine receptor agonists and antagonists to compete with [3H]strychnine binding varied markedly. The affinity of the receptor for the antagonists strychnine, 2-aminostrychnine, RU-5135,5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-Msoxazolo[5,4-c]azepin-3-ol, and the ligands bicuculline, norharmane, and PK-8165 decreased at higher temperatures. The binding of these ligands was enthalpydriven. In contrast, the affinity of the agonists glycine, β-alanine, and taurine and of the antihelmintic ivermectin increased at higher temperatures, and their binding was characterized by substantial increases in entropy. In addition, temperature affected the allosteric interaction between the glycine and strychnine sites of the receptor, as indicated by changes in the Hill number of the competition curves for glycine. Our results clearly indicate that the binding of agonists and antagonists to the glycine receptor is differentially affected by temperature, probably as a consequence of the different changes induced in the receptor conformation.

Notes: Abstract: Incubation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) with rat brain homogenate resulted in the formation of (4R)-2-[3′-(5′-hydroxyindolyl)-methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (5′-HITCA) as the major metabolite. The substance represents the condensation product of 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde with L-cysteine. The chemical structure was confirmed by chromatographic and chemical methods as well as by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry. Incubation of 5-HT in the presence of L-cysteine yielded the thiazolidine as the main metabolite up to 4 h. Under these conditions, the concentration of 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA) amounted to about 20% and 57% of 5′-HITCA (0.5 h and 4 h, respectively). In contrast to these findings, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) was identified as the major metabolite when tryptamine was incubated under similar conditions. (4R)-2-(3′-Indolylmethyl)-1,3-thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (ITCA) was found to be the main conversion product of tryptamine only during the first 30 min. To investigate the fate of the thiazolidines, radiolabelled and unlabelled ITCA was incubated with rat brain homogenate. The compound was degraded enzymatically and rapidly. Subcellular fractionation revealed that the enzyme activity was present mainly in the cytosolic fraction whereas the preparation of mitochondria showed less activity. The responsible enzyme is presumably a carbonsulfur lyase (EC 4.4.1.-). The major metabolite was isolated by HPLC and identified by mass spectrometry as well as by comparison with reference compounds to be IAA. The present results suggest the involvement of L-cysteine in the metabolism of biogenic aldehydes by forming thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acids. The biological rationale of this pathway might be a control mechanism of the chemically active aldehydes by the rapid inactivation of the compounds.

Notes: Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine whether administration of dichloroacetate (DCA), an activator of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), improves recovery of energy metabolites following transient cerebral ischemia. Gerbils were pretreated with DCA, and cerebral ischemia was produced using bilateral carotid artery occlusion for 20 min, followed by reperfusion up to 4 h. DCA had no effect on the accumulation of lactic acid and the decrease in ATP and phosphocreatine (PCr) during the 20-min insult, nor on the recovery of these metabolites measured at 20 and 60 min reperfusion. However, at 4 h reperfusion, levels of ATP and PCr were significantly higher in DCA-treated animals than in controls, as PCr exhibited a secondary decrease in caudate nucleus of control animals. PDH was markedly inhibited at 20 min reperfusion in both groups, but was reactivated to a greater extent in DCA-treated animals at 60 min and 4 h reperfusion. These results demonstrate that DCA had no effect on the initial recovery of metabolites following transient ischemia. However, later in reperfusion, DCA enhanced the postischemic reactivation of PDH and prevented the secondary failure of energy metabolism in caudate nucleus. Thus, inhibition of PDH may limit the recovery of energy metabolism following cerebral ischemia.

Notes: Abstract: The effects of pharmacologically relevant concentrations of ethanol on the release of endogenous adenosine from rat cerebellar synaptosomes were investigated. Release was conducted for 5, 10, 30, or 60 s after which time the incubation medium (containing the released adenosine) was rapidly separated from the synaptosomal membranes by vacuum filtration. The adenosine content of the filtrate was measured by HPLC–fluorescence detection. Both basal and KCl-stimulated adenosine release consisted of an initial rapid phase, for the first 10 s, that was followed by a relatively slower phase. Basal endogenous adenosine release was estimated as 199 ± 14 pmol/mg protein/5 s. Potassium (chloride) increased adenosine release from the basal level to 433 ± 83 pmol/mg protein/5 s. Ethanol caused a dose-dependent increase of adenosine release. The interaction between dilazep and ethanol indicates that ethanol-stimulated release does not involve the dilazep-sensitive transport system. The results support previous findings that indicate that cerebellar adenosine is involved in the mediation of ethanol-induced motor disturbances in the rat.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: The Hypothalamic pituitary-Adrenal Axis: physiol-ogy, pathophysiology, and Psychiatric Implications edited by Alan F Schatzberg and Charles B Nemeroff. Peptides (Neuromethods, Vol. 6) edited by A. A. Boul-ton, G. B. Baker, and Q. G. Pittman. Trace Amines: Comparative and Clinical Neurobiology edited by A. A. Boulton, A. V. Juorio, and R. G. H. Downer. Neurodegenerative Disorders: The Role Played by Endotoxins and Xenobiotics edited by G. Nappi, O. Hor-nykiewicz, R. G. Fariello, A. Agnoli, and H. Klawans. The Neural and Behavioral Organization of Goal-Directed Movements by M. Jeannerod. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology (Vol. 10.) edited by L. Martini and W. F. Ganong. Voltammetry in the Neurosciences edited by J. B. Justice, Jr.

Notes: Abstract: The incorporation of radioactive phosphate into proteins of both normal and regenerating ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system of the rat is reported. The incorporation reactions were carried out in vitro by incubating homogenates of excised ganglia with [γ-32P]ATP under various conditions. It was found that incorporation of phosphate into proteins of regenerating ganglia in the molecular mass range 10,000–100,000 daltons increased up to 40% over incorporation into proteins from control ganglia during the first 3 days following injury and returned to control levels after 14 days. Analysis of the proteins by two-dimensional electrophoresis revealed that only few, i.e., 〈20, became radioactively labelled in homogenates of superior cervical ganglia in the presence of Ca2+, and even fewer in the presence of cyclic AMP. Furthermore, all these proteins fell within a narrow pI range of 4–6. The growth-associated protein, variously designated GAP-43, B-50, F-1, and pp46, has an enhanced level of expression and phosphorylation in regenerating ganglia compared with controls at day 3. Injury also caused consistently higher levels of incorporation into two other proteins with molecular masses at positions 55,000 and 85,000 and pI values of 5.1 and 4.5, respectively; the former protein most probably is β-tubulin. The fact that both proteins are found in the 15,000 g pellet after the tissue has been solubilized in 0.5% nonionic detergent indicates that they may indeed be components of filament assemblies. Thus, the results suggest that protein phosphorylation is a mechanism involved in cytoskeletal function in regenerating nerve.

Notes: Abstract: Incubation of β-endorphin with cytosolic and particulate fractions of rat brain resulted in the formation of several peptides, including γ-endorphin [β-endorphin-(1–17)] and β-endorphin-(18–31), indicating the presence of enzyme activity cleaving the Leu17-Phe18 bond of β-endorphin. An assay for this Leu-Phe cleaving activity, based on the cleavage of the 14C-labeled substrate acetyl-Val-Thr-Leu-Phe-[ε ([14C]CH3)2]Lys-NHCH3, was used to examine the properties of this enzyme activity. β-Endorphin-(1–31) competitively inhibited the Leu-Phe-cleaving enzyme activity on the pentapeptide substrate. Over 90% of activity was recovered in the cytosolic fraction. Leu-Phe-cleaving activity behaved like a thiol endopeptidase because it was inhibited by low concentrations of N-ethylmaleimide, p-chloromercuribenzoate, p-chloromercuribenzoyl sulfate, and low concentrations of Hg2+. Low concentrations of sulfhydryl compounds stimulated Leu-Phe-cleaving activity. The activity was optimal between pH 8.5 and 9.0. The Km of Leu-Phe-cleaving activity in the cytosolic fraction was 35 μM and in the particulate fraction 88 μM with Vmax values of 193 and 15 nmol mg protein−1 h−1, respectively. The apparent molecular mass of the Leu-Phe-cleaving enzyme was estimated by gel filtration to be ∼200 kilodaltons. These properties of Leu-Phe-cleaving activity indicate that the Leu-Phe-cleaving enzyme is distinct from any known brain endopeptidase.

Notes: Abstract: The regional distribution of c-fos mRNA in the mouse brain has been investigated by in situ hybridization autoradiography after seizures induced by an acute electroconvulsive shock (ECS). ECS led to a widespread induction of the proto-oncogene c-fos in the brain, with highest concentrations in discrete areas within the limbic system and also in the hypothalamus and cerebellum. The mild stress of sham treatment in earclipped animals induced a weaker and qualitatively different pattern of c-fos mRNA expression involving the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. These data suggest the usefulness of c-fos in situ hybridization as a marker of neuronal stimulation and in mapping a range of effects from a mild stress to the robust changes of an electroconvulsive seizure.

Notes: Abstract: In Cichlid fish (Oreochromis mossambicus) primary cell cultures from whole brain and optic tectum, the differentiation-dependent distribution of polysialogangliosides on the outer cell surface has been followed on an ultrastructural level. For this, a two-step labeling technique with the monoclonal mouse antibody Q211, recognizing a polysialoganglioside-associated epitope, followed by a secondary IgM antibody, coupled to colloidal gold sols as an electron-dense marker, has been used. The gold grains are not uniformly distributed over the whole cell surface, but rather are clearly arranged clusters. In cells from freshly hatched larvae, both cell bodies and nerve fibers strongly exhibit the polysialoganglioside epitope on their surface. With progressing development, neuronal cell labeling is more and more restricted to nerve fibers and especially to cellular adhesion zones, including synaptic terminals, thus suggesting a functional involvement of polysialogangliosides in nerve sprouting and initiation of both cell-to-extracellular matrix and cell-to-cell contacts.

Notes: Abstract: An involvement of excitatory amino acid (EAA) transmitter–receptor interactions in the development of hypoglycemia-induced neuronal damage has been suggested. We report here on the binding to EAA receptors in the rat caudate nucleus and cerebral cortex, during and following severe insulin-induced hypoglycemia with an isoelectric EEG of 10 or 30 min duration. The binding of α[3H]amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid ([3H]AMPA) to quisqualate receptors, [3H]kainic acid (KA) to kainate receptors, and [3H]glutamate to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-sensitive sites was determined by quantitative autoradiography. During EEG isoelectricity, AMPA binding was reduced by approximately 40%, which could represent quisqualate receptor desensitization. One hour following glucose-induced recovery, AMPA binding was no longer different from control level. As the recovery period was prolonged to 1 or 4 weeks, AMPA binding decreased. The decrease was more pronounced in the dorsolateral than in the ventromedial part of the striatum. This correlates with the distribution of neuronal damage, and probably reflects loss of receptor binding sites due to cell death. During the period of EEG silence there was a tendency toward an increase in NMDA displaceable glutamate binding. Following 4 weeks of recovery, binding to NMDA receptors was significantly decreased. Glutamate binding to NMDA-sensitive sites was remarkably resistant to neuronal necrosis and was not significantly different from control values in the dorsolateral caudate 1 week following the hypoglycemic coma. No changes in KA binding were found until 1 week posthypoglycemia, when a significant reduction in binding was noted in the lateral striatum. Two weeks following partial unilateral cortical ablation, binding to NMDA receptors in the striatum decreased in the lesioned hemisphere in control animals and remained significantly lower than in the contralateral hemisphere during EEG isoelectricity. In contrast, no hemispheric differences in AMPA binding were observed. The lack of desensitization of NMDA receptors during EEG isoelectricity and their relative resistance to neuronal necrosis could be of significance for the development of hypoglycemic neuronal damage.

Notes: Abstract: Histamine (HA) metabolism in the brain of mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes was examined. The levels of tele-methylhistamine (t-MH), a major metabolite of brain HA, significantly increased 3 and 4 weeks after STZ injection. However, the HA turnover rates in the diabetic mice, determined from the accumulation of t-MH after the administration of pargyline, were not different from the control values when the animals were allowed free access to food. When the mice were starved for 15 h 4 weeks after STZ treatment, the brain levels of l-histidine decreased significantly, whereas HA turnover increased significantly. Such changes were not observed in starved control mice. Histidine decarboxylase or HA N-methyltransferase activity did not change after starvation in either diabetic or control mice. These results show that the histaminergic (HAergic) activity in the brains of diabetic mice remains within normal range as long as the animals are allowed free access to food. However, they also indicate that a marked enhancement of HAergic activity accompanied by a decrease in the brain l-histidine level occurs in starved diabetic mice.

Notes: Abstract: To study the feedback control by histamine (HA) H3-receptors on the synthesis and release of HA at nerve endings in the brain, the effects of a potent and selective H3-agonist, (R)-α-methylhistamine, and an H3-antagonist, thioperamide, on the pargyline-induced accumulation of tele-methylhistamine (t-MH) in the brain of mice and rats were examined in vivo. (R)-α-Methylhistamine dihydrochloride (6.3 mg free base/kg, i.p.) and thioperamide (2 mg/kg, i.p.), respectively, significantly decreased and increased the steady-state t-MH level in the mouse brain, whereas these compounds produced no significant changes in the HA level. When administered to mice immediately after pargyline (65 mg/kg, i.p.), (R)-α-methylhistamine (3.2 mg/kg, i.p.) inhibited the pargyline-induced increase in the t-MH level almost completely during the first 2 h after treatment. Thioperamide (2 mg/kg, i.p.) enhanced the pargyline-induced t-MH accumulation by ∼70% 1 and 2 h after treatment. Lower doses of (R)-α-methylhistamine (1.3 mg/kg) and thioperamide (1 mg/kg) induced significant changes in the pargyline-induced t-MH accumulation in the mouse brain. In the rat, (R)-α-methylhistamine (3.2 mg/kg, i.p.) and thioperamide (2 mg/kg, i.p.) also affected the pargyline-induced t-MH accumulation in eight brain regions and the effects were especially marked in the cerebral cortex and amygdala. These results indicate that these compounds have potent effects on HA turnover in vivo in the brain.

Notes: Abstract: The present study demonstrates for the first time the solubilization of peripheral-type benzodiazepine binding sites (PBS) from cat cerebral cortex. Of all detergents tested {digitonin, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propane sulfonate (CHAPS), Tween 20, deoxycholate, and Triton X-100 in the presence of NaCl, the best solubilization (15% of initial activity) was obtained using 0.5% of the zwitterionic detergent CHAPS plus 2 M NaCl. Specific binding of [3H]PK 11195 to membrane-bound and solubilized PBS was saturable, yielding equilibrium dissociation constants (KD) of 1.3 ± 0.2 and 1.9 ± 0.3 nM, respectively, and maximal numbers of binding sites of 1,435 ± 150 and 980 ± 126 fmol/mg protein, respectively. The KD value of PK 11195 binding to solubilized PBS obtained from experimental kinetic analysis was 0.95 ± 0.09 nM. The relative potencies of various compounds (PK 11195, Ro 5–4864, diazepam, flunitrazepam, clonazepam, methyl-β-carboline-3-carboxylate, and Ro 15–1788) in displacing [3H]PK 11195 specific binding from membrane-bound and solubilized PBS were similar. Most of the solubilized binding activity was destroyed by heating at 60°C for 30 min or by treatment with 2 M guanidinium chloride, which indicates the presence of a protein-binding site in the solubilized preparation. Over 85% of the solubilized binding activity was retained after 1 week at 4°C, which will enable future application of purification procedures without major concern for stability of the material.

Notes: Abstract: We have prepared highly purified synaptic vesicles from rat brain by subjecting vesicles purified by our previous method to a further fractionation step, i.e., equilibrium centrifugation on a Ficoll gradient. Monoclonal antibodies to three membrane proteins enriched in synaptic vesicles—SV2, synaptophysin, and p65—each were able to immunoprecipitate specifically ∼90% of the total membrane protein from Ficoll-purified synaptic vesicle preparations. Anti-SV2 precipitated 96% of protein, anti-synaptophysin 92%, and antip65 83%. These results demonstrate two points: (1) Ficollpurified synaptic vesicles appear to be 〉90% pure, i.e., 〈 10% of membranes in the preparation do not carry synaptic vesicleassociated proteins. These very pure synaptic vesicles may be useful for direct biochemical analyses of mammalian synaptic vesicle composition and function. (2) SV2, synaptophysin, and p65 coexist on most rat brain synaptic vesicles. This result suggests that the functions of these proteins are common to most brain synaptic vesicles. However, if SV2, synaptophysin, or p65 is involved in synaptic vesicle dynamics, e.g., in vesicle trafficking or exocytosis, separate cellular systems are very likely required to modulate the activity of such proteins in a temporally or spatially specific manner.

Notes: Abstract: Alcohols, including ethanol, have a specific effect on transbilayer and lateral membrane domains. Recent evidence has shown that alcohols in vitro have a greater effect on fluidity of one leaflet as compared to the other. The present study examined effects of chronic ethanol consumption on fluidity of synaptic plasma membrane (SPM) exofacial and cytofacial leaflets using trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) labeling and differential polarized fluorometry of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH). Mice were administered ethanol or a control liquid diet for 3 weeks. Animals were killed and SPM prepared. The exofacial leaflet of SPM was significantly more fluid than the cytofacial leaflet in both groups, as indicated by limiting anisotropy of DPH. However, differences between the two leaflets were much smaller in the ethanol-treated group. Ethanol at concentrations seen clinically had a greater effect in vitro on the more fluid exofacial leaflet. This asymmetric effect of ethanol was significantly diminished in the exofacial leaflet of the ethanol-treated mice. Chronic ethanol consumption has a specific effect on membranes. Membrane functions that may be regulated by asymmetry of fluidity and lipid distribution may be altered by chronic ethanol consumption.

Notes: Abstract: The protein and glycoprotein compositions of CNS myelin from the living coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae) were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. An unglycosylated component of 25 kilodaltons showed substantially stronger immunoblot reactivity with antibodies against mammalian proteolipid protein (PLP) than lungfish glycosylated PLP. DM-20 (intermediate protein) was not detectable in either fish. The presence of unglycosylated PLP in CNS myelin of the actinistian coelacanth contradicts an association with cartilaginous fishes but supports tetrapod affinities closer than those of lungfish.

Notes: Abstract: The kinetics of neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) binding to heparin were studied in a heparin-Sepharose-based solid-phase binding assay. The observed binding is time dependent and saturable. A binding constant of 5.2 ± 1.4 × 10−8M is observed for binding of newborn rat NCAM to heparin. This is ∼25 times lower than the binding constant determined for newborn rat NCAM homophilic binding. Both Scatchard and Hill plot analyses suggest the presence of only one binding site. Fab' fragments of antibodies to rat NCAM significantly inhibit binding, a result indicating that a specific site on NCAM is involved in binding to heparin. The binding is inhibited by heparin (IC50, ∼5 μg/ml), whereas chondroitin sulfate is a less potent inhibitor (IC50, ∼15 μg/ml).

Notes: Book reviewed in this article: Neurotransmitters and Epilepsy edited by P. C. Jobe and H. E. Laird II. Alzheimer's Disease: Problems, Prospects, and Perspectives edited by H. J. Altman.

Notes: Abstract: Gangliosides were partially purified from goldfish brain and fractionated by DEAE Fractogel column chromatography. Each fraction was then analyzed by HPTLC and also by HPLC after conversion of the gangliosides to 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazides. The tetrasialoganglioside GQ1c was found to constitute more than 50% of the total gangliosides. Gangliosides in smaller quantities were also tentatively identified. These included GT1b, GT1c, GT2, GT3, GD1a, and several others. By using this information, the amounts of individual gangliosides in various regions of goldfish central nervous system were compared. Although all areas of brain examined contained similar concentrations of gangliosides, with GQ1c as the predominant component, retina and optic nerve contained significantly lower concentrations of GQ1c, and GM3 was the major component.

Notes: Abstract: The present study was undertaken to define effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) on formation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) and inositol phosphates (IPs) in rat brain regions. The brain of male Wistar rats was dissected into seven discrete regions, and each region was sliced. The slices were incubated in Krebs-Henseleit glucose buffer containing varying doses of TRH. TRH caused a significant and consistent increase in cAMP level, but not in formation of IPs, in the hypothalamus, striatum, and midbrain. TRH stimulated formation of IPs in the cerebellum, where the tripeptide did not change the cAMP level. In contrast, formation of neither cAMP nor IPs was affected by TRH in the cortex, hippocampus, or pons-medulla. These data suggest that TRH possesses two distinct types of brain intracellular signaling systems, which vary with brain regions.

Notes: Abstract: We have correlated myelin membrane structure with biochemical composition in the CNS and PNS of a phylogenetic series of animals, including elasmobranchs, teleosts, amphibians, and mammals. X-ray diffraction patterns were recorded from freshly dissected, unfixed tissue and used to determine the thicknesses of the lipid bilayer and the widths of the spaces between membranes at their cytoplasmic and extracellular appositions. The lipid and protein compositions of myelinated tissue from selected animals were determined by TLC and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel elec-trophoresis/immunoblotting, respectively. We found that(l) there were considerable differences in lipid (particularly gly-colipid) composition, but no apparent phylogenetic trends; (2) the lipid composition did not seem to affect either the bilayer thickness, which was relatively constant, or the membrane separation; (3) the CNS of elasmobranch and teleost and the PNS of all four classes contained polypeptides that were recognized by antibodies against myelin Po glycoprotein; (4) antibodies against proteolipid protein (PLP) were recognized only by amphibian and mammalian CNS; (5) wide extracellular spaces (ranging from 36 to 48 Å) always correlated with the presence of Po-immunoreactive protein; (6) the narrowest extracellular spaces (∼31 Å) were observed only in PLP-containing myelin; (7) the cytoplasmic space in PLP-containing myelin (∼31 Å) averaged ∼5Å less than that in Po-containing myelin; (8) even narrower cytoplasmic spaces (∼24Å) were measured when both Po and 11–13-kilodalton basic protein were detected; (9) proteins immu-noreactive to antibodies against myelin P2 basic protein were present in elasmobranch and teleost CNS and/or PNS, and in mammalian PNS, but not in amphibian tissues; and (10) among mammalian PNS myelins, the major difference in structure was a variation in membrane separation at the cytoplasmic apposition. These findings demonstrate which features of myelin structure have remained constant and which have become specifically altered as myelin composition changed during evolutionary development.

Notes: Abstract: Desensitization or tolerance is a major consequence of long-term opiate exposure. The mechanism of opiate desensitization is only poorly understood. We report that exposure of raj spinal cord-dorsal root ganglion cocultured neurons to k-opiate agonists is accompanied by a 60–70% reduction in the level of the αi subunit of GTP-binding proteins. Using selective antibodies, which discriminate among the various αi subunit forms, it was found that the opiate treatment leads to a reduction in the amount of the αi-1 subunit. The levels of αs, αo, and β subunits remain unchanged. Tnis molecular event could underlie the development of tolerance and cross-tolerance to opiates.

Notes: Abstract: Stimulation of rat parotid acinar cells by the tachykinin neurokinin (NK) 1 receptor agonist substance P (SP) resulted in a significant reduction in the initial accumulation of cytosolic myo-[3H]inositol. This effect was rapid, because a reduction of ∼15% could be seen already at 30 s, with the maximal effect (∼45%) being observed at 15 min. The response to SP stimulation Was temperature dependent, because at 4°C no reduction was found, jln addition, at 4°C, cytosolic myo-[3H]inositol represented only 10% of the labeled inositol accumulated at 37°C. The SP-induced reduct on in cytosolic ravo[3H]inositol accumulation was concentration dependent; the EC50 obtained for SP was 5.8 ± 2.5 nM. Spantide [N Arg1, D-Trp79, Leu]SP), a SP antagonist, used at a concentration oif 105 A/, gave a competitive shift of the dose-response curve to SP. Various tachykinins and their analogs were evaluated for their ability to reduce cytosolic mvo-[3H]inositol. [L-Pro9]SP and SP methyl ester, two highly selective agonists of NK1 receptors, reduced the initial accumulation of myo-H]inositol with EQo values of 2.3 and 67.0 nM, respectively. Long SP C-terminal fragments were more potent than shorter ones. SP N-terminal fragments and SP free acid were -without effect. [Pro7]NKB, a selective NKB analog, had no effect. The rank order of potency of mammalian tachykinins was SP 〉 NKA 〉 NKB. These findings and the close correlation between EC50 values and IC50 values obtained in binding studies implicate the NK 1 receptor. In addition, stimulation of muscarinic receptors by carbachol alscp resulted in a reduction in level of cytosolic mjw-[3H]inositol, with this effect being reversed by atropine. Moreover, atropine was unable tjo alter the SP-induced reduction in cytosolic myo-[3H]inositol accumulation. Other neurotransmitters, such as glutamic acid, serotonin, chplecystokinin, neurotensin, bradykinin, and neuropeptide Y, were without effect on initial cytosolic myo-[3H]inositol accumulation. In conclusion, NK1 and muscarinic receptors seem to regulate the membrane transport of inositol in acinar cells of the rat parotid gland. Measurement of the initial accumulation of cytosolic myo-[3H]inositol in this tissue could profitably be adopted as a very simple, rapid, [sensitive, and specific biochemical procedure for screening the activity of potential agonists and antagonists at NK1 receptors.

Notes: Abstract: The β1 and β2-adrenoceptor populations in rat cortex were individually quantified by labelling all of the receptors with [3H]dihydroalprenolol and displacing with iso-prenaline (200 μM) or CGP 20712A (l-{2-[(3-carbamoyl-4-hydroxy)phenoxy]ethylamino}-3-[4-(l-methyl-4-trifluoro-methyl-2-imidazolyl)phenoxy]-2-propanol methanesul-phonate; 100 nM) to define total β-adrenoceptors and β1-adrenoceptors, respectively. Binding parameters for β2-adrenoceptors were calculated by the difference. Oral administration of the monoamine reuptake inhibitors sibutramine HC1 (3 mg/kg), amitriptyline (10 mg/kg), desipramine (10 mg/kg), or zimeldine (10 mg/kg) for 10 days decreased the total number of β-adrenoceptors present in rat cortex. This effect was entirely due to a reduction in the number of β1-adrenoceptors. Similarly, 10 days of treatment with the monoamine oxidase inhibitor tranylcypromine (10 mg/kg p.o.) or five electroconvulsive shocks (ECSs; 200 V, 2 s) spread over this period also down-regulated β-adrenoceptors by reducing the content of the βsubtype. By contrast, treatment with clenbuterol (5 mg/kg p.o.) for 10 days reduced the number of cortical β-adrenoceptors by an effect on the β2-adre-noceptor population. The effects of short-term treatment with these drugs were also investigated, and, using the doses shown above, the results of 3 days of administration or a single ECS were determined. Sibutramine HC1 and desipramine were alone in producing a reduction in number of β-adrenoceptors after 3 days. Once again, this was exclusively due to a loss of β1-adrenoceptors. Together, the results show that antidepressants with disparate pharmacological actions all down-regulated β-adrenoceptors through the neuronal β1-adrenoceptor subtype. In addition, sibutramine HC1 and desipramine produced this attenuation very rapidly. However, clenbuterol treatment reduced the number of β2-adrenoceptors, and its reported antidepressant activity is, therefore, unlikely to be mediated via this mechanism.

Notes: Abstract: Intracerebral microdialysis was used to monitor dopamine release in rat striatal extracellular fluid following the intraperitoneal administration of dopamine's precursor amino acid, l-tyrosine. Dopamine concentrations in dialysates increased transiently after tyrosine (50–100 mg/kg) administration. Pretreatment with haloperidol or the partial lesioning of nigrostriatal neurons enhanced the effect of tyrosine on dopamine release, and haloperidol also prolonged this effect. These data suggest that nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons are responsive to changes in precursor availability under basal conditions, but that receptor-mediated feedback mechanisms limit the magnitude and duration of this effect.

Notes: Abstract: When cytoplasmic extracts of guinea-pig myenteric neurones are submitted to centrifugal density gradient fractionation in a zonal rotor acetylcholine is bimodally distributed in the gradient, in a peak (I) rich in synaptic vesicles of the classic type and in a denser peak (II/VI) rich in densecored vesicles and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). The putative stable synaptic vesicle markers synaptophysin (p38), vesicular proteoglycan, and Mg2+-activated ATPase were also bimodally distributed, with a peak coincident with peak I and another, broader peak embracing peak II/VI, and neighbouring peaks of other neuropeptides resolved from peak II/VI by the density gradient separation procedure used. To establish whether the stable markers, acetylcholine and VIP in peak II/VI were present in one particle or several, attempts were made to separate them by particle-exclusion chromatography and differential osmotic fragility. These were unsuccessful, leading us to conclude that the storage particles in peak II/VI contain both neurotransmitters and all three putative stable synaptic vesicle markers. It is suggested that such particles are the counterparts, in cholinergic neurones of the myenteric plexus, of the dense-cored, enkephalin- and noradrenaline-containing vesicles of certain adrenergic neurones and, like the latter, may exist in a precursor–product relationship with the classic synaptic vesicles containing the small-molecular-mass transmitters and found in the same nerve terminals.

Notes: Abstract: Utilization of very long chain saturated fatty acids by brain was studied by injecting 20-day-old and adult rats with high-density lipoprotein containing [stearic or lignoceric acid-14C, (methyl-3H)choline]sphingomyelin. Labeling was followed for 24 h. Very small amounts of 14C were recovered in the brain of all rats, and there was no preferential uptake of lignoceric acid. Approximately 20% of the entrapped 14C was located in the form of unchanged sphingomyelin 24 h after injection. This result shows that the rat brain utilizes very little very long chain fatty acids (≥20 C atoms) from high-density lipoprotein sphingomyelin, even during the myelinating period. The [3H]choline moiety from sphingomyelin was recovered in brain phosphatidylcholine in a higher proportion in comparison with the 14C uptake. The brain 3H increased throughout the studied period in all experiments, but was much higher in the myelinating brain than in the mature brain. From the radioactivity distribution in liver and plasma lipids, it is clear that the choline 3H in the brain originates from either double-labeled phosphatidylcholine of lipoproteins or tritiated lysophosphatidylcholine bound to albumin, both synthesized by the liver.

Notes: Abstract: The peptides bradykinin and kallidin are released in response to noxious stimuli and mediate various physiological effects, including a direct stimulation of nociceptive afferent neurones. The nature of the receptor molecules through which these ligands act is presently unknown. We synthesised an iodinatable photoaffinity probe, N′-4-azido-salicylylkallidin, and used it in an attempt to identify candidate bradykinin receptors on the NG108–15 neuroblastoma X glioma hybrid cell line. The ligand bound in subdued light to a particulate fraction of NG108–15 tumours and could be displaced by bradykinin with an IC50 of 0.33 nM. In a physiological assay, it behaved as an agonist equipotent with bradykinin. Gel analysis of the labelled products after photolysis of the iodinated ligand in the presence of NG108–15 cells or tumour membranes revealed bradykinin-blockable labelling of a glycoprotein with an Mr of 166,000. The probe was also able to label purified commercial angiotensin converting enzyme. The band labelled in NG108–15 cells was immunoprecipitable with a polyclonal antiserum to angiotensin converting enzyme, an enzyme shown to be present in low amounts in these preparations by direct binding using the iodinatable specific ligand MK351A.

Notes: Abstract: N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) administration exacerbates neurological dysfunction after traumatic spinal cord injury in rats, whereas NMDA antagonists improve outcome in this model. These observations suggest that release of excitatory amino acids contributes to secondary tissue damage after traumatic spinal cord injury. To further examine this hypothesis, concentrations of free amino acids were measured in spinal cord samples from anesthetized rats subjected to various degrees of impact trauma to the T9 spinal segment. Levels of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter amino acids [γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, aspartate, glycine, taurine] and levels of nonneurotransmitter amino acids (asparagine, glutamine, alanine, threonine, serine) were determined at 5 min, 4 h, and 24 h posttrauma. Uninjured surgical (laminectomy) control animals showed modest but significant declines in aspartate and glutamate levels, but not in other amino acids, at all time points. In injured animals, the excitatory amino acids glutamate and aspartate were significantly decreased by 5 min posttrauma, and remained depressed at 4 h and 24 h as compared with corresponding laminectomy controls. In contrast, the inhibitory amino acids, glycine, GABA, and taurine, were decreased at 5 min post-injury, had partially recovered at 4 h, and were almost fully recovered at 24 h. The nonneurotransmitter amino acids were unchanged at 5 min posttrauma and significantly increased at 4 h, with partial recovery at 24 h. At 4 h postinjury, severe trauma caused significantly greater decreases in aspartate and glutamate than did either mild or moderate injury. These findings are consistent with the postulated role of excitatory amino acids in CNS trauma.

Notes: Abstract: Protein carboxylmethyltransferase has been proposed to play a role in the regulation of neuroblastoma differentiation (Kloog et al., 1983). When we investigated this hypothesis further, different results for methyl ester formation were obtained when measured in acid-precipitated proteins and in proteins separated by acidic polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, following the incubation of intact neuroblastoma cells with [3H]methionine. These unexpected findings led to the development of a modified assay using S-[3H]-adenosylmethionine as the radiolabeled precursor for quan-titating carboxyl methylation in intact cells. Data obtained from either acid-precipitated proteins or those separated on an electrophoresis gel following S-[3H]adenosylmethionine incubation directly correlated with data obtained from proteins separated by electrophoresis following [3H]methionine incubation. Using each of the three methods, an approxi-mately twofold increase in the carboxyl methylation of cellular proteins was detected in neuroblastoma cells differentiated by reducing the serum concentration from 10 to 0.5%, but not in those cells differentiated with either 5 mMhexa-methylene bisacetamide or 2% dimethyl sulfoxide. The finding that all detectable methyl acceptor proteins are increasingly methylated following 0.5% serum treatment and that this modification is substoichiometric suggests that protein carboxyl methylation is not an essential component of the differentiation process in neuroblastoma cells.

Notes: Abstract: We found atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), known as a humoral factor in regulating body fluid volume and blood pressure, in considerable quantities in rat superior cervical sympathetic ganglion (SCG) by radioimmunoassay after separation with reverse-phase HPLC. Although the ANP content of the immature rat 1 week after birth was low, it doubled at 2 weeks and then increased gradually, until it reached the adult level. Denervation caused a rapid decrease in the ANP content to half of the intact SCG level after 3 h, which then fell to 10% of the control value on day 2 after operation. The time course of ANP content reduction after denervation was similar but rather faster than that of activity of the acetyl-choline-synthesizing enzyme, choline acetyltransferase, an observation suggesting that ANP may partly contribute to cholinergic synaptic transmission. On the other hand, axotomy produced a rather slower decrease in the ANP content than did denervation. Enucleation and sialoadenectomy also caused a considerable reduction of the ANP content. Thus, part of the ANP found in the ganglion is apparently transported from sympathetically innervated extraganglionic organs via retrograde axoplasmic flow.

Notes: Abstract: The interactions between α-latrotoxin (α-LTx), a neurosecretagogue purified from the venom of the black widow spider, and the trivalent cations Al3+, Y3+, La3+, Gd3+, and Yb3+ were investigated in rat striatal synaptosomal preparations. All trivalent cations tested were inhibitors of α-LTx-induced [3H]dopamine ([3H]DA) release (order of potency: Yb3+ 〉 Gd3+± Y3+ 〉 La3+ 〉 Al3+). Only with Al3+ could inhibition of [3H]DA release be attributed to a block of 125I-α-LTx specific binding to synaptosomal preparations. The inhibitory effect of trivalent ions was reversible provided synaptosomes were washed with buffer containing EDTA. Trivalent ions also inhibited α-LTx-induced [3H]DA release at times when α-LTx-stimulated release was already evident. α-LTx-induced synaptosomal membrane depolarization was blocked by La3+, but not affected by Gd3+, Y3+, and Yb3+. α-LTx-stimulated uptake of 45Ca2+ was inhibited by all trivalent cations tested. These results demonstrate that there exist at least three means by which trivalent cations can inhibit α-LTx action in rat striatal synaptosomal preparations: (1) inhibition of α-LTx binding (Al3+); (2) inhibition of α-LTx-induced depolarization (La3+); and (3) inhibition of α-LTx-induced 45Ca2+ uptake (Gd3+, Y3+, Yb3+, La3+).

Notes: Abstract: The effects of steroid hormones on the cyclic AMP responses to stimulation of human astrocytoma cells (D384) by dopamine, prostaglandin E1 (PGE1), and isoprenaline were investigated. Incubation of D384 cells with dexamethasone resulted in a potentiation of the PGE1 and isoprenaline responses and a marked attenuation of the dopamine response. The time courses of the effects of dexamethasone on dopamine and PGE1 responses were similar, requiring long-term (at least 18 h) incubation of cells with the steroid. Concentration-response curves of dexamethasone effects on dopamine and PGE1 responses yielded similar Ka apparent values, suggesting a common mechanism. Cycloheximide, a protein synthesis inhibitor, prevented the effects of dexamethasone. Only steroids with glucocorticoid activity reproduced the dexamethasone effects. Direct stimulation of Gs with 5-guanylylimidodiphosphate and adenylate cyclase with forskolin revealed no significant differences in their activities in dexamethasone-treated and untreated cells. Furthermore, a comparison of the dopamine and PGE1 concentration-response curves obtained from dexamethasone-treated and untreated cells suggested that the affinity of the receptors for their agonists remained unchanged. These results suggest that glucocorticoids may alter protein synthesis and thereby the number of receptors expressed by D384 cells.

Notes: Abstract: The mechanism of the electrical-to-chemical decoding involved in the preferential release of the transmitters acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) by electrical field stimulation at low (5 Hz) and high (50 Hz) frequencies was studied in superfused myenteric neurons. The stimulation-induced uptake of 45Ca2+ accompanying high frequency stimulation was markedly reduced by 10 μM nifedipine, a specific blocker of l-type voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels (VSCCs), as was also the preferential high-frequency release of VIP. By contrast, the 45Ca2+ uptake during low-frequency stimulation was somewhat lower per pulse, and neither this uptake nor the preferential release of acetylcholine occurring at this frequency was significantly reduced by nifedipine. These findings suggest that the release of acetylcholine and VIP involve different VSCCs. The pattern of in vitro protein thiophosphorylation in tissue extracts of differentially stimulated myenteric neurons involved polypeptides of 205, 173, 86, 73, 57, 54, 46, 32, 28, and 24 kDa and was also markedly stimulus and nifedipine dependent. This suggests that different phosphoproteins are involved during the frequency-dependent activation of the different Ca2+ channels and exocytotic mechanisms.

Notes: Abstract: The compartmentation of amino acid metabolism is an active and important area of brain research. I3C labeling and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are powerful tools for studying metabolic pathways, because information about the metabolic histories of metabolites can be determined from the appearance and position of the label in products. We have used 13C labeling and 13C NMR in order to investigate the metabolic history of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in rat brain. [l-l3C]Glucose was infused into anesthetized rats and the 13C labeling patterns in GABA and glutamate examined in brain tissue extracts obtained at various times after infusion of the label. Five minutes after infusion, most of the l3C label in glutamate appeared at the C4 position; at later times, label was also present at C2 and C3. This l3C labeling pattern occurs when [1-l3Cjglucose is metabolized to pyruvate by glycolysis and enters the pool of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) intermediates via pyruvate dehydrogenase. The label exchanges into glutamate from the TCA cycle pool through glutamate transaminases or dehydrogenase. After 30 min of infusion, approximately 10% of the total 13C in brain extracts appeared in GABA, primarily (〉80%) at the amino carbon (C4), indicating that the GABA detected is labeled through pyruvate carboxylase. The different labeling patterns observed for glutamate and GABA show that the large detectable glutamate pool does not serve as the precursor to GABA. Our NMR data support previous experiments suggesting compartmentation of metabolism in brain, and further demonstrate that GABA is formed from a pool of TCA cycle intermediates derived from an anaplerotic pathway involving pyruvate carboxylase.

Notes: Abstract: The free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+],) of cultured cerebral cortex neurons was determined using a fluorescent Ca2+chelator (Fluo-3) after exposure of the neurons to glutamate. Mature neurons (8 days in culture) responded within 45 s to 100 μM glutamate by an increase in [Ca2+]j from 75 to 340 nM, an increase that during the following 6 min of exposure reached 400 nM. This increase in [Ca2+]j could not be reversed by removal of glutamate. In the absence of extracellular CaCl2, only part of the initial, rapid, glutamate-induced increase in [Ca2+]j was observed in these neurons. In contrast to these findings, neurons cultured for only 2 days (immature neurons) exhibited only a small (from 75 to 173 nM) increase in [Ca2+]j after exposure to 100 μM glutamate, and this rapid increase in [Ca2+]j tended to decline on prolonged exposure to glutamate. Moreover, after removal of glutamate, the increase in [Ca2+]j was fully reversible. Pharmacological characterization of the response to glutamate in mature neurons showed that the yN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists phencyclidine and D-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate blocked 75 and 90%, respectively, of the response, whereas the non-NMDA antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione had little effect.

Notes: Depoiarisation of [3H]inosito]-prelabejled slices of rat cerebral cortex with elevated extracellular Kr induced a rapid and marked increase in inositol polyphosphate accumulation. Addition of the muscarinic antagonist atropine (10 μM) markedly inhibited the K+-induced accumulation of inositol tetrakisphosphate (InsP4), with only a slight reduction in stimulated inositol bis- and trisphosphate levels. Inhibitory effects on InsP4 were noted at the earliest time period measured (30 s) and suggested the involvement of released endogenous acetylcholine in part of the response. The atropine-insensitive component of depoiarisation did not! appear to be secondary to release of noradrenaline, histamine, or 5-hydroxytryptamine, because addition of prazosip, mepyr-amine, or ketanserin was without effect on the K+ response. Furthermore, secretion of a neuropeptide that could stimulate phosphoinositide hydrolysis was unlikely, because the peptidase inhibitor bacitracin was also without effect. The results suggest that endogenous acetylcholine can stimulate phosphoinositide metabolism by interacting with muscarinic receptors and that this is particularly evident on InsP4 accumulation. Atropine-insensitive responses may be secondary to Ca2+ entry via voltage-sensitive channels.

Notes: The ganglioside composition in meningioma specimens from 20 patients was analyzed to find potential me-ningioma-associated structures. The characterization was performed by immunological staining with specific monoclonal antibodies to gangJioside antigens and fast atom bombardment-mass spectrometry. The major gangliosides were GM3 and GD3, and most of the meningioma specimens could be divided into a “GM3-rich” or a “GD3-rich” group. Gangliosides of the gangliotetraose series were represented by GM1, GD1 a, GDlb, and GT1b, which were found in minor amounts in all the specimens. The ratios of GM1/ GD1a and GD1a/GDlb differed from that in normal brain, and therefore existence of this series could not be explained by contamination with brain material. Ganglioside 3′-isoLM1, found in human malignant glioma, could not be detected in any meningioma specimen.

Notes: Glycine potentiates stimulation of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis by glutamate and N-methyl-D-aspartate, but not by quisqualate or carbamylcholine, in primary cultures of cerebellar granule cells. This potentiation occurs in the absence of extracellular Mg2+, but is more evident when stimulation of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis by N-methyl-D-aspartate is measured in the presence of 1 mM Mg2+. The action of glycine is not antagonized by strychnine. These results suggest that glycine acts as a positive modulator of signal transduction at a specific class of N-methyl-D-aspartate-sensitive glutamate receptors coupled to inositol phospholipid hydrolysis in cerebellar granule cells.

Notes: Abstract Specific high affinity binding of the cage convulsant t-[35S] butylbicyclophosphorothionate (TBPS) was observed in membrane homogenates of housefly heads and crayfish abdominal muscles. [35S] TBPS binding in these two invertebrate tissues was inhibited by biologically active cage convulsants, picrotoxin analogs, and barbiturates. The housefly binding sites were inhibited most potently by several insecticides. Approximately 50% of total binding was displaceable by excess (0.1 mM) nonradioactive TBPS, picrotoxinin, ethyl bicyclophosphate, or dieldrin. Optimal binding assay conditions for housefly homogenates included pH 7.5, 22°C temperature, 0.3 M chloride concentration, and incubation for 60 min; for crayfish homogenates, 4°C temperature and 150-min incubations were optimal. Scatchard plots of equilibrium binding indicated one site in both tissues (KD= 50 nM, Bmax= 250 fmol/mg protein in housefly; KD= 25 nM, Bmax = 100 fmol/mg protein in crayfish). Association kinetics in housefly were consistent with one rate constant (k+1=8 × 106M-1 min-1), but dissociation was described better by two rate constants (k-1, = 0.28 min-1 and 0.042 min-1; calculated Kd values of 80 nM and 12 nM). Displacement by cage convulsants showed Hill numbers near 0.5, also consistent with two populations of affinity, while displacement by other drugs showed Hill numbers near 1.0. [35S]TBPS binding in insects was most potently inhibited by the insecticides dieldrin (IC50= 50 nM), aldrin, and lindane (200 nM), in a stereospecific manner, consistent with this binding site being the receptor for biological toxicity. [35S]TBPS binding was also inhibited by relatively high concentrations of some pyrethroid insecticides, such as deltamethrin and cypermethrin (1-2 μM). Stereospecific inhibition by cypermethrin isomers agreed partially with biological activity, suggesting the possible role of this site in some toxicological actions of pyrethroids, although these compounds have more potent effects on voltage-regulated sodium channels. [35S]TBPS binding sites in crayfish muscle appear identical to γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor-chloride channels labeled by radiolabeled picrotoxin in this tissue. The sites in both invertebrate tissues examined are similar to those in mammalian brain and appear to be the target of important drugs.

Notes: Abstract Fish optic nerves, unlike mammalian optic nerves, are endowed with a high capacity to regenerate. Injury to fish optic nerves causes pronounced changes in the composition of pulse-labeled substances derived from the surrounding non-neuronal cells. The most prominent of these injury-induced changes is in a 28-kilodalton (kDa) polypeptide whose level increases after injury, as revealed by one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. The present study identified as apolipoprotein A-I (apo-A-I) a polypeptide of 28 kDa in media conditioned by regenerating fish optic nerves. The level of this polypeptide increased after injury by approximately 35%. Apo-A-I was isolated by gel-permeation chromatography from delipidated high-density lipoproteins (HDL) that had been obtained from carp plasma by sequential ultracentrifugation. Further identification of the purified protein as apo-A-I was based on its molecular mass (28 kDa) as determined by gel electrophoresis, amino acid composition, and microheterogeneity studies. The isolated protein was further analyzed by immunoblots of two-dimensional gels and was found to contain six isoforms. Western blot analysis using antibodies directed against the isolated plasma protein showed that the 28-kDa polypeptide in the preparation of soluble substances derived from the fish optic nerves (conditioned media, CM) cross-reacted immunologically with the isolated fish plasma apo-A-I. Immunoblots of two-dimensional gels revealed the presence of three apo-A-I isoforms in the CM of regenerating fish optic nerves (pIs: 6.49, 6.64, and 6.73). At least some of the apo-A-I found in the CM is derived from the nerve, as was shown by pulse labeling with [35S]methionine, followed by immunoprecipitation. The apo-A-I immunoactive polypeptides in the CM of the fish optic nerve were found in high molecular-weight, putative HDL-like particles. Immunocytochemical staining revealed that apo-A-I immunoreactive sites were present in the fish optic nerves. Higher labeling was found in injured nerves (between the site of injury and the brain) than in non-injured nerves. The accumulation of apo-A-I in nerves that are capable of regenerating may be similar to that of apo-E in sciatic nerves of mammals (a regenerative system); in contrast, although its synthesis is increased, apo-A-I does not accumulate in avian optic nerves nor does apo-E in rat optic nerves (two nonregenerative systems).

Notes: Abstract Brain neuropathy target esterase is identified as a paraoxon-resistant, mipafox-sensitive esterase that can be labelled with [3H]diisopropyl phosphorofluoridate. During “aging” of the labelled (inhibited) esterase, half the label (one isopropyl group) is transferred to a site (of the same molecular weight in sodium dodecyl sulphate) whence it may be released in volatile form by treatment with alkali. Our previously published procedure for complete extraction in a form suitable for scintillation counting of tritium-labelled proteins from polyacrylamide gels includes treatment of part-solubilised gels with alkali. Particles from brain of the hen, pig, sheep, guinea-pig, and rat were preincubated with paraoxon with or without mipafox, treated with [3H]diisopropyl phosphorofluoridate, and solubilised in sodium dodecyl sulphate. Labelled polypeptides (except from the rat) were separated by electrophoresis. Both mipafox-sensitive labelling and “volatilisable counts” were located principally in the 155-kilodalton region, with the residues dispersed throughout the gels. The quantities of paraoxon-resistant, mipafox-sensitive labelling sites and of “volatilisable counts” (in pmol/particles from 1 g) were, respectively, 12.2 and 8.65 in hen brain, 9.80 and 6.82 in pig, 8.48 and 5.46 in sheep, 4.46 and 4.01 in guinea-pig, and 4.91 and 2.08 in rat. The “volatilisable count” assay seems more specific for neuropathy target esterase and is easier and more precise than assays based on differences in labelling of two samples, each subjected to much processing. Hydrolytic activity of particles taken before labelling was measured against phenyl valerate. By comparison with the “volatilisable counts,” the catalytic centre activity of neuropathy target esterase of brain from these species was calculated to be (in the same order) 1.95, 1.95, 2.34, 1.82, and 2.78 ± 105 mol min-1, respectively.

Notes: Abstract: Forskolin, an activator of adenylate cyclase, stimulates adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) release and increases proopiomelanocortin mRNA levels in anterior pituitary cells by enhancing cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase activity. The phorbol ester phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) evokes these same responses from anterior pituitary cells by activating protein kinase C. Both protein kinases most likely induce their cellular effects by catalyzing the phosphorylation of specific proteins. To elucidate the mechanisms by which cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C promote ACTH secretion and synthesis, the phosphoproteins regulated by forskolin and PMA were identified in the cell line AtT-20, which consists of a homogeneous population of corticotrophs. Phosphoproteins were analyzed in different subcellular fractions by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. Forskolin increased phosphate incorporation into two proteins in the cytoplasmic fraction of 24 kilodaltons (kd) (pi 6.8) and 40 kd (pi 5.8), two proteins in the plasma membrane fraction of 32 kd (pi 8.3) and 60 kd (pi 8), and one protein in the nuclear fraction of 20 kd (pI 8.7). Insertion of the inhibitor of cAMP-dependent protein kinase into the AtT-20 cells, using a liposome technique, blocked the rise in phosphate incorporation induced by forskolin. PMA also stimulated phosphate incorporation into proteins in AtT-20 cells. PMA increased the phosphorylation of three cytoplasmic proteins of 25 kd (pi 7.6), 40 kd (pi 5.8), and 40 kd (pI 8.1) as well as two membrane proteins of 32 kd (pi 8.3) and 60 kd (pi 8) and one nuclear protein of 20 kd (pi 6.3). The inhibitor of cAMP-dependent protein kinase did not reduce the protein phosphorylation induced by PMA. The possible role of protein phosphorylation in the stimulation of ACTH release and synthesis by cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C is discussed.

Notes: Abstract Membranes from rat telencephalon contain a single class of strychnine-insensitive glycine sites. That these sites are associated with N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors is indicated by the observations that [3H]glycine binding is selectively modulated by NMDA receptor ligands and, conversely, that several amino acids interacting with the glycine sites increase [3H]N-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]piper-idine ([3H]TCP) binding to the phencyclidine site of the NMDA receptor. The endogenous compound kynurenate and several related quinoline and quinoxaline derivatives inhibit glycine binding with affinities that are much higher than their affinities for glutamate binding sites. In contrast to glycine, kynurenate-type compounds inhibit [3H]TCP binding and thus are suggested to form a novel class of antagonists of the NMDA receptor acting through the glycine site. These results suggest the existence of a dual and opposite modulation of NMDA receptors by endogenous ligands.

Notes: Abstract The full agonist [3H]UK 14304 [5-bromo-6-(2-im-idazolin-2-yl-amino)-quinoxaline] was used to characterize α2-adrenoceptors in postmortem human brain. The binding at 25°C was rapid (t1/2, 4.6 min) and reversible (t1/2, 14.1 min), and the Kd determined from the kinetic studies was 0.48 nM In frontal cortex, the rank order of potency of adrenergic drugs competing with [3H]UK 14304 or [3H]clonidine showed the specificity for an α2A-adrenoceptor: UK 14304 ≅ yohimbine ≅ oxymetazoline ≅ clonidine 〉 phentolamine ≅ (–)-adrenaline 〉 idazoxan ≅ (–) -noradrenaline 〉 phenylephrine 〉 (±)-adrenaline ≫ corynanthine 〉 prazosin ≫ (±)-propranolol. GTP induced a threefold decrease in the affinity of [3H]UK 14304, with no alteration in the maximum number of binding sites, suggesting that the radioligand labelled the high-affinity state of the α2-adreno-ceptor. In the frontal cortex, analyses of saturation curves indicated the existence of a single population of noninter-acting sites for [3H]UK 14304 (Kd= 0.35 ± 0.13 nM; Bmax= 74 ± 9 fmol/mg of protein). In other brain regions (hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebellum, brainstem, caudate nucleus, and amygdala) the Bmax ranged from 68 ± 7 to 28 ± 4 fmol/mg of protein. No significant changes in the Kd values were found in the different regions examined. The binding of [3H]UK 14304 was not affected by age, sex or postmortem delay. [3H]UK 14304 should be a useful tool to assess brain α2-adrenoceptor density in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Notes: Abstract The axonal transport of proteins, glycoproteins, and gangliosides in sensory neurons of the sciatic nerve was examined in adult rats exposed to acrylamide via intraperitoneal injection (40 mg/kg of body weight/day for nine consecutive days). The L5 dorsal root ganglion was injected with either [35S]methionine to label proteins or [3H]glucosamine to label, more specifically, glycoproteins and gangliosides. At times ranging from 2 to 6 h later, the sciatic nerve and injected ganglion were excised and radioactivity in consecutive 5-mm segments determined. In both control and acrylamide-treated animals, outflow profiles of [35S]methionine-labeled proteins showed a well defined crest which moved down the nerve at a rate of ± 340 mm/day. Similar outflow profiles and transport rates were seen for [3H]glucosamine-labeled glycoproteins in control animals. However, in animals treated with acrylamide, the crest of transported labeled glycoprotein was severely attenuated as it moved down the nerve. This finding suggests that in acrylamide-treated animals, axonally transported glycoproteins were preferentially transferred (unloaded or exchanged against unlabeled molecules) from the transport vector to stationary axonal structures. We also examined the clearance of axonally transported glycoproteins distal to a ligature on the nerve. The observed impairment of clearance in acrylamide-treated animals relative to controls is supportive of the above hypothesis. Acrylamide may directly affect the mechanism by which axonally transported material is unloaded from the transport vector. Alternatively, the increased rate of unloading might reflect an acrylamide-induced increase in the demand for axonally transported material.

Notes: Abstract Under conditions minimizing the contribution of Na+/Ca2+ exchange to calcium entry in synaptosomes, the K+ depolarization-dependent calcium influx (JCa) is a single exponential function of time. JCa activates and slowly inactivates at membrane potentials positive to –50 mV, a result indicating the involvement of moderate voltage-activating, slowly inactivating calcium channels. Calcium channels in synaptosomes are characterized by stronger sensitivity to blockage by Cd2+ than Co2+, insensitivity to dihydropyridine calcium antagonists or the agonist Bay K 8644, and weak, partial sensitivity to the peptide toxin ω-conotoxin GVIA. These characteristics suggest that voltage-sensitive calcium channels in rat cerebrocortical synaptosomes are dissimilar from the somatic T, N, or L channel types. JCa is not affected by treatment of synaptosomes with the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin, the membrane permeant dibutyryl-cyclic AMP, or the kinase C activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate diester, results suggesting that calcium channels in synaptosomes are not directly modulated by protein kinase A- or C-mediated phosphorylation.

Notes: Abstract In dissociated cell cultures of fetal rat ventral mesencephalon preloaded with [3H]dopamine, glutamate (10-5-10-3M) stimulated the release of [3H]dopamine. Glutamate stimulation of [3H]dopamine release was Ca2+ dependent and was blocked by the glutamate antagonist, cis-2,3-piperidine dicarboxylic acid. Glutamate stimulation of [3H]dopamine release was not due to glutamate neurotoxicity because (1) glutamate did not cause release of a cytosolic marker, lactate dehydrogenase, and (2) preincubation of cultures with glutamate did not impair subsequent ability of the cells to take up or release [3H]dopamine. Thus, these dissociated cell cultures appear to provide a good model system to characterize glutamate stimulation of dopamine release. Release of [3H]dopamine from these cultures was stimulated by verat-ridine, an activator of voltage-sensitive Na+ channels, and this stimulation was blocked by tetrodotoxin. However, glutamate stimulated [3H]dopamine release was not blocked by tetrodotoxin or Zn2+. Substitution of NaCl in the extracellular medium by sucrose, LiCl, or Na2SO4 had no effect on glutamate stimulation of [3H]dopamine release; however, release was inhibited when NaCl was replaced by choline chloride or N-methyl-d-glucamine HCl. Glutamate-stimulated [3H]-dopamine release was well maintained (60-82% of control) in the presence of Co2+, which blocks Ca2+ action potentials, and was unaffected by the local anesthetic, lidocaine. These results are discussed in terms of the receptor and ionic mechanisms involved in the stimulation of dopamine release by excitatory amino acids.

Notes: Abstract: Intracerebroventricular injection of ethylcholine aziridinium (AF64A) (2 nmol/ventricle) induced a considerable decrease in the level of acetylcholine (ACh) in hippocampus (from 21.14 ± 0.84 to 10.04 ± 0.59 pmol/mg of tissue; p 〈 0.001) 4 days after application. The reduction of cholinergic function was accompanied by a decrease in the level of noradrenaline (NA) (from 1.96 ± 0.08 to 1.41 ± 0.06 pmol/mg of tissue; p 〈 0.001). Two days after administration of AF64A (1 or 2 nmol/ventricle), the dose-dependent decrease in NA level was associated with an increase in the level of its major metabolite, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG), resulting in a considerable increase in the MHPG/ NA molar ratio (from 0.84 ± 0.06 to 1.62 ± 0.17; p 〈 0.002). Chronic treatment of AF64A-injected rats with clonidine (0.02–0.2 mg/kg, i.p., every 8–12 h) had no significant effect on the loss of ACh content, whereas the decrease in NA content in hippocampus was completely prevented. Clonidine induced aggressive behavior in the AF64A-treated rats, in contrast to sedation in vehicle-injected rats. The response to clonidine under these experimental conditions and the increased MHPG/NA molar ratio in response to AF64A suggest that the transient loss of NA content following AF64A administration results from increased NA release. The increased noradrenergic activity in hippocampus may be linked to the reduction of tonic inhibitory cholinergic input. These results are discussed in relation to possible implications for senile dementia of the Alzheimer type.